Irrigation System List
A viewset for viewing and editing Irrigation Systems.
GET /api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 468, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"It is clear that cultivation did appear in the Jomon period, but it is equally clear that it remained a minor activity that did not contribute significantly to the growth of social complexity (Rowley-Conwy 2002:62). In fact, Hudson (1997) has that the of full-scale rejection agriculture was one characteristic shared by argued Jomon societies.\" §REF§(Pearson 2007, 363)§REF§." }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"It is clear that cultivation did appear in the Jomon period, but it is equally clear that it remained a minor activity that did not contribute significantly to the growth of social complexity (Rowley-Conwy 2002:62). In fact, Hudson (1997) has that the of full-scale rejection agriculture was one characteristic shared by argued Jomon societies.\" §REF§(Pearson 2007, 363)§REF§." }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"It is clear that cultivation did appear in the Jomon period, but it is equally clear that it remained a minor activity that did not contribute significantly to the growth of social complexity (Rowley-Conwy 2002:62). In fact, Hudson (1997) has that the of full-scale rejection agriculture was one characteristic shared by argued Jomon societies.\" §REF§(Pearson 2007, 363)§REF§." }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"It is clear that cultivation did appear in the Jomon period, but it is equally clear that it remained a minor activity that did not contribute significantly to the growth of social complexity (Rowley-Conwy 2002:62). In fact, Hudson (1997) has that the of full-scale rejection agriculture was one characteristic shared by argued Jomon societies.\" §REF§(Pearson 2007, 363)§REF§." }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"It is clear that cultivation did appear in the Jomon period, but it is equally clear that it remained a minor activity that did not contribute significantly to the growth of social complexity (Rowley-Conwy 2002:62). In fact, Hudson (1997) has that the of full-scale rejection agriculture was one characteristic shared by argued Jomon societies.\" §REF§(Pearson 2007, 363)§REF§." }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"It is clear that cultivation did appear in the Jomon period, but it is equally clear that it remained a minor activity that did not contribute significantly to the growth of social complexity (Rowley-Conwy 2002:62). In fact, Hudson (1997) has that the of full-scale rejection agriculture was one characteristic shared by argued Jomon societies.\" §REF§(Pearson 2007, 363)§REF§." }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Military architects familiar with agricultural irrigation principles constructed ditches and moats to deter mounted troops.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press. p.173.§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " King Nintoku diverted Ishiwara river into a canal. <a href=\"https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA62&dq=ancient+korea+city+hectares&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj1vIGAp9fJAhUHNhoKHYXLBXwQ6AEIJzAC#v=onepage&q=ancient%20korea%20city%20hectares&f=false\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA62&dq=ancient+korea+city+hectares&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj1vIGAp9fJAhUHNhoKHYXLBXwQ6AEIJzAC#v=onepage&q=ancient%20korea%20city%20hectares&f=false </a>" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'the production of rice required drainage and irrigation systems that could not be built or maintained by individuals operating independently. Later land laws were certainly affected by ah ancient practice of having irrigation systems managed by the community as a whole. Although state ownership of water was not written into law, its existence and nature can be deduced from extant historical sources.' §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.416§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " They existed in previous period, but sources do not say whether they still did at this time. Frequent warfare likely caused major disruptions, so continuity with preceding periods is more difficult to infer." }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.54.§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Present in Central Asia from about 800 BCE - 1200 CE: \"the major Central Asian hydraulic systems appear to have been maintained with few serious interruptions for over two millenniums, extending down to the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the oasis of Otrar to the northwest, the origin of new methods of irrigation implemented in the 6th century should most likely be sought in the old agricultural civilizations of the south, in Sogdiana or Khorezm. These improvements were linked to the presence of the Türk Empire, which unified these areas and made such a diffusion possible by establishing at Otrar the tudun in charge of Cac.84 The empire simultaneously increased the need for greater food production, and thus set in motion a cycle in which irrigated areas were extended and population and urbanization increased, thanks to techniques brought from the south.85 \" §REF§(de la Vaissière 2005, 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Recent work at Angkor by the EFEO and the Greater Angkor Project has mapped a vast water management network extending across approximately 1000 sq km. From the new map an outline can be provide of the development of the network between the 8th-9th and the 14th centuries. Each large extension of the network tapped water from a succession of natural rivers flowing from NE to SW. Each river was further north and was tapped further to the west. The network had five major components - E-W embankments that trapped water flowing from the north and northeast; N-S channels that eventually delivered water to large reservoirs (baray); the baray and the large temple moats; embankments and channels oriented from NW to SE that could distribute water back from west to east across the slope of the land; and channels oriented towards the southwest which could dispose of water rapidly to the lake, the Tonle Sap. Significantly the later major channels, such as the Angkor Wat canal and the canal that pre-dated the current Siem Reap river, were drains that served to dispose of water into the lake.'§REF§(Fletcher et al. 2008, p. 57)§REF§ '[T]he Khmer practised water management on a scale dwarfing that of the Maya and most other regions of the world. Angkor’s surrounds were converted into an artificial landscape criss-crossed with canals, embankments, reservoirs, dams and other massive engineering works to redirect river flows, store water for the dry season and avert floods by disposing of excess water during monsoons. The Khmer struggled for centuries to maintain their hydraulic landscape until it became overwhelmed by climate change, producing floods that broke embankments and canals filled with sediments from eroded terrains'§REF§(Diamond 2009, p.480).§REF§§REF§(Fletcher et al 2008, 658)§REF§ ‘Retention and storage of surplus water during the rainy and flood seasons for use during the rest of the year was, along with the buildings of religious monuments, the major preoccupation of Khmer engineers throughout the long history of the empire.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.22)§REF§ 'Aside from the destructive effects of recurrent wars, Khmer kings constructively made it a priority to build reservoirs and canals, all necessary for collective irrigation. Some kings built rest houses along roads; others built hospitals.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.4)§REF§ 'Tikal featured constructed reservoirs in the centre among the main monuments and around the periphery of the central area that could hold about 568,000 m^3 of water at one time and more than 900,000 m^3 during the course of a year (Scarborough and Galloping 1991:661). By contrast, the West Baray at Angkor could hold more than 50 million m^3 of water at one time and covered 16 km^2 (Fletcher et al. 2008).'§REF§(Fletcher 2012, p.300)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Recent work at Angkor by the EFEO and the Greater Angkor Project has mapped a vast water management network extending across approximately 1000 sq km. From the new map an outline can be provide of the development of the network between the 8th-9th and the 14th centuries. Each large extension of the network tapped water from a succession of natural rivers flowing from NE to SW. Each river was further north and was tapped further to the west. The network had five major components - E-W embankments that trapped water flowing from the north and northeast; N-S channels that eventually delivered water to large reservoirs (baray); the baray and the large temple moats; embankments and channels oriented from NW to SE that could distribute water back from west to east across the slope of the land; and channels oriented towards the southwest which could dispose of water rapidly to the lake, the Tonle Sap. Significantly the later major channels, such as the Angkor Wat canal and the canal that pre-dated the current Siem Reap river, were drains that served to dispose of water into the lake.'§REF§(Fletcher et al. 2008, p. 57)§REF§ '[T]he Khmer practised water management on a scale dwarfing that of the Maya and most other regions of the world. Angkor’s surrounds were converted into an artificial landscape criss-crossed with canals, embankments, reservoirs, dams and other massive engineering works to redirect river flows, store water for the dry season and avert floods by disposing of excess water during monsoons. The Khmer struggled for centuries to maintain their hydraulic landscape until it became overwhelmed by climate change, producing floods that broke embankments and canals filled with sediments from eroded terrains'§REF§(Diamond 2009, p.480).§REF§§REF§(Fletcher et al 2008, 658)§REF§ ‘Retention and storage of surplus water during the rainy and flood seasons for use during the rest of the year was, along with the buildings of religious monuments, the major preoccupation of Khmer engineers throughout the long history of the empire.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.22)§REF§ 'Aside from the destructive effects of recurrent wars, Khmer kings constructively made it a priority to build reservoirs and canals, all necessary for collective irrigation. Some kings built rest houses along roads; others built hospitals.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.4)§REF§ 'Tikal featured constructed reservoirs in the centre among the main monuments and around the periphery of the central area that could hold about 568,000 m^3 of water at one time and more than 900,000 m^3 during the course of a year (Scarborough and Galloping 1991:661). By contrast, the West Baray at Angkor could hold more than 50 million m^3 of water at one time and covered 16 km^2 (Fletcher et al. 2008).'§REF§(Fletcher 2012, p.300)§REF§ 'Pre-Angkor inscriptions refer to donations of rice field workers to temples, but not to irrigation. Thus agriculture was probably depen- dent on trapping floodwater or rainfall. Another possibility in certain areas around the Great Lake was a system of natural pumping created by raising the level of groundwater through creating a unique, com- plex system arising from local ecology. This might have been the rea- son for the construction of the large baray of the Angkor period. Early Cambodian water retention systems may have consisted of earthen dams open on one side, in a system similar to that of Java. Inscriptions contain no references to plowing, but do mention water buffalo and use of a yoke.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 81)§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “Even before they sacked Angkor in 1431, the Siamese had occupied large parts of the empire, carrying off Khmers as slaves and possibly sabotaging the irrigation system according to some writers. » §REF§(Tully 2006, 49)§REF§ « The irrigation system organized by the weakened central machin- ery, also began to crumble; with reservoirs filled with silt and canals clogged, farmers were deprived of life-giving irrigation water.\" §REF§(Dutt 1996, 225)§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Recent work at Angkor by the EFEO and the Greater Angkor Project has mapped a vast water management network extending across approximately 1000 sq km. From the new map an outline can be provide of the development of the network between the 8th-9th and the 14th centuries. Each large extension of the network tapped water from a succession of natural rivers flowing from NE to SW. Each river was further north and was tapped further to the west. The network had five major components - E-W embankments that trapped water flowing from the north and northeast; N-S channels that eventually delivered water to large reservoirs (baray); the baray and the large temple moats; embankments and channels oriented from NW to SE that could distribute water back from west to east across the slope of the land; and channels oriented towards the southwest which could dispose of water rapidly to the lake, the Tonle Sap. Significantly the later major channels, such as the Angkor Wat canal and the canal that pre-dated the current Siem Reap river, were drains that served to dispose of water into the lake.'§REF§(Fletcher et al. 2008, p. 57)§REF§ :'[T]he Khmer practised water management on a scale dwarfing that of the Maya and most other regions of the world. Angkor’s surrounds were converted into an artificial landscape criss-crossed with canals, embankments, reservoirs, dams and other massive engineering works to redirect river flows, store water for the dry season and avert floods by disposing of excess water during monsoons. The Khmer struggled for centuries to maintain their hydraulic landscape until it became overwhelmed by climate change, producing floods that broke embankments and canals filled with sediments from eroded terrains'§REF§(Diamond 2009, p.480).§REF§§REF§(Fletcher et al 2008, 658)§REF§ ‘Retention and storage of surplus water during the rainy and flood seasons for use during the rest of the year was, along with the buildings of religious monuments, the major preoccupation of Khmer engineers throughout the long history of the empire.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.22)§REF§ 'Aside from the destructive effects of recurrent wars, Khmer kings constructively made it a priority to build reservoirs and canals, all necessary for collective irrigation. Some kings built rest houses along roads; others built hospitals.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.4)§REF§ 'Tikal featured constructed reservoirs in the centre among the main monuments and around the periphery of the central area that could hold about 568,000 m^3 of water at one time and more than 900,000 m^3 during the course of a year (Scarborough and Galloping 1991:661). By contrast, the West Baray at Angkor could hold more than 50 million m^3 of water at one time and covered 16 km^2 (Fletcher et al. 2008).'§REF§(Fletcher 2012, p.300)§REF§ 'Not only did the productivity of marginal lands therefore begin to fall, but the complex of transport canals and agricultural waterworks on which Angkor’s economy rested became clogged.'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 239)§REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'While there is no evidence of large-scale irrigation projects during this period, 'what may have represented small-scale irrigation was carried out at the level of the local communities, under the leadership of local upon and other chiefs. [...] [N]o remains of large hydraulic works have been discovered for the period between Funan and Angkor. Evidence that some organized digging occurred for water management or fish capture, is in the numerous references to trapan, artificial ponds.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, 306)§REF§ 'These [reservoirs] were probably multi-purpose, involving supplying the moats, religious foundations and urban populace with water, and for irrigating rice fields.'§REF§(Higham 2014b, 291)§REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'There is evidence that the major step during the Funan period toward the integration of the small, dry-rice-growing and root-cultivating principalities, whose people worshipped Siva, with hunting and gathering societies inland from Oc-Eco was the introduction, perhaps as late as 500, of systematic irrigation; drainage probably came earlier.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 21)§REF§ The latest archaeological survey work by Evans using LiDAR attests to the large extent of irrigation systems from the fifth century onward§REF§(Evans 2016)§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'There is evidence that the major step during the Funan period toward the integration of the small, dry-rice-growing and root-cultivating principalities, whose people worshipped Siva, with hunting and gathering societies inland from Oc-Eco was the introduction, perhaps as late as 500, of systematic irrigation; drainage probably came earlier.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 21)§REF§ 'Ruins here [in Angkor Borei] cover 300 hectares (660 acres). It has been estimated that 9.5 million bricks were used in constructing its walls, weighing 142,500 metric tons (130,000 tons). The walls, irregular in shape, average 6 kilometers (3.5 miles) in diameter, 4.5 meters (14 feet) high, and 2.4 meters (8 feet) wide. In some places a road and structures were built atop it. It is flanked by inner and outer moats and encloses a baray, smaller pools, canals, unexcavated mounds, and at least 15 ancient structures, few of which have been dated. Given the lack of bastions, guardhouses, or gateways, it is thought that the wall was not built for defensive purposes. Instead it was probably intended to provide dry land during that part of the year when the waters of the Mekong, swollen with melted snow from the Himalayas, turn the region into a giant swamp.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, pp. 19-20)§REF§ 'By the end of the fifth century, Funan was losing ground to its northern neighbor Linyi (the future Champa), the sailors who had provided Funan’s navy had turned to piracy, and the Malay entrepoˆts had begun sending their own embassies to China. In this same period, as noted earlier, Funan’s canal and irrigation networks were expanding rapidly in the Mekong Delta, as part of its transition to a more intensive agricultural economy. However, Funan’s decline continued, as midway through the sixth century its Khmer vassals to the north broke away, and by the seventh century Funan was no more. Its irrigation networks in the Mekong Delta were reclaimed by jungle as the farmers moved northwest to the new Khmer-ruled centers in the central Cambodia Tonle Sap area.'§REF§(Hall 2010, pp. 60-61)§REF§The latest archaeological survey work by Evans using LiDAR attests to the large extent of irrigation systems from the fifth century onward§REF§(Evans 2016)§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 35, "name": "kh_cambodia_ba", "long_name": "Bronze Age Cambodia", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned in sources." }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 36, "name": "kh_cambodia_ia", "long_name": "Iron Age Cambodia", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 224 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"It was Andronovo communities that we saw moving southwards into the desert zone and adopting irrigation agriculture in favourable places like the delta of the Amu Darya and the Zeravshan region.\"§REF§(Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Agricultural irrigation systems were known to be used in Bronze Age Canaan,§REF§Golden (2004:84).§REF§ and are unlikely to have been abandoned." }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from García-Arenal's§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 40§REF§ reference to the \"irrigable lands of the Sous river\"." }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No extensive agriculture at this time." }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 50-400 CE West African rice (Oryza glaberrima) domesticated. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§ While, \"Archaeological evidence affirms that the building of terraces and irrigation canals in sub-Saharan Africa pre-dates external influence...\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 248 cite: Adams 1989)§REF§ in this time period they are unlikely, and in the Inland Delta region unnecessary due to the annual inundation of the Niger river. Domesticated rice planted before the flood grows high enough to sprout above the flood waters." }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 50-400 CE West African rice (Oryza glaberrima) domesticated. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§ In the Inland Delta region irrigation systems are unnecessary due to the annual inundation of the Niger river. Domesticated rice planted before the flood grows high enough to sprout above the flood waters. However, \"Archaeological evidence affirms that the building of terraces and irrigation canals in sub-Saharan Africa pre-dates external influence...\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 248 cite: Adams 1989)§REF§ which suggests that irrigation systems are present in the archaeological sub-tradition." }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 50-400 CE West African rice (Oryza glaberrima) domesticated. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§ In the Inland Delta region irrigation systems are unnecessary due to the annual inundation of the Niger river. Domesticated rice planted before the flood grows high enough to sprout above the flood waters. However, \"Archaeological evidence affirms that the building of terraces and irrigation canals in sub-Saharan Africa pre-dates external influence...\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 248 cite: Adams 1989)§REF§ which suggests that irrigation systems are present in the archaeological sub-tradition." }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Archaeological evidence affirms that the building of terraces and irrigation canals in sub-Saharan Africa pre-dates external influence...\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 248 cite: Adams 1989)§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Archaeological evidence affirms that the building of terraces and irrigation canals in sub-Saharan Africa pre-dates external influence...\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 248 cite: Adams 1989)§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In northwestern Mongolia irrigation systems existed with channels and even simple aqueducts made of hollow logs (onggocha/ongots). Many of these irrigation systems were ancient, dating back to the military farms created under the Mongol Empire (see CHINQAI; QARA-QORUM; SIBERIA AND THE MON- GOL EMPIRE).\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 175)§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In northwestern Mongolia irrigation systems existed with channels and even simple aqueducts made of hollow logs (onggocha/ongots). Many of these irrigation systems were ancient, dating back to the military farms created under the Mongol Empire (see CHINQAI; QARA-QORUM; SIBERIA AND THE MON- GOL EMPIRE).\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 175)§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Tamim's claim that the Uighurs practised agriculture has been strikingly confirmed by the discoveries of archeologists, who have found signs that the Uighurs used millstones, pestles and irrigation canals, and even evidence that grain, such as millet, was buried together with corpses of certain Uighurs.\" §REF§(Mackerras 1990, 337)§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation systems absent for the later Xiongnu Imperial Confederation.§REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Absent, according to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Tsewang Rabdan and Galdan Tseren also developed agricultural produc- tion at Ili, the Irtysh River, and Ürümchi by bringing in Turkic oasis dwellers, called Taranchi, who knew the special skills of high-yielding irrigated agriculture. A Qing soldier captured by Tsewang in 1731 reported seeing wide fields and gardens, and even some Zunghars themselves began to take up agriculture, in the form of military colonies, imitating Qing prac- tice.10\" §REF§(Perdue 2005, 306)§REF§ \"In northwestern Mongolia irrigation systems existed with channels and even simple aqueducts made of hollow logs (onggocha/ongots). Many of these irrigation systems were ancient, dating back to the military farms created under the Mongol Empire (see CHINQAI; QARA-QORUM; SIBERIA AND THE MON- GOL EMPIRE).\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 175)§REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Archaeological evidence affirms that the building of terraces and irrigation canals in sub-Saharan Africa pre-dates external influence...\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 248 cite: Adams 1989)§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Archaeological evidence affirms that the building of terraces and irrigation canals in sub-Saharan Africa pre-dates external influence...\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 248 cite: Adams 1989)§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The use of small scale canal irrigation systems is inferred from the presence of settlements in the piedmont area (which would require some water control), but direct evidence for irrigation is found in the later periods. Any irrigation that was present would have been very small in extent and therefore not centrally controlled.§REF§Kirkby (1973) The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Muesum of Anthropology, Memoirs No.5. An Arbor, University of Michigan. p117§REF§§REF§Nicholas, L. M (1989) Land use in prehispanic Oaxaca. In, Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: the prehispanic settlement patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Number 23. Ann Arbor: 449-505. p458§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p147§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There is some evidence for the use of irrigation systems during this period (for example, at Hierve el Agua), but the evidence suggests that the irrigation systems were constructed at a small scale, serving the land of only one or two communities.§REF§Kirkby (1973) The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Muesum of Anthropology, Memoirs No.5. An Arbor, University of Michigan. p117§REF§§REF§Nicholas, L. M (1989) Land use in prehispanic Oaxaca. In, Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: the prehispanic settlement patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Number 23. Ann Arbor: 449-505. p458§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p146§REF§ However, an irrigation system has been uncovered at La Coyotera in the Cuicatlan Canada during the Lomas phase (equivalent to MA Late I and II) which was likely constructed to fulfil Zapotec demands.§REF§Spencer, C. S. (1982) The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán: A study of primary state formation. Studies in Archaeology. Academic Press, New York. p224-6§REF§" } ] }