Full Time Bureaucrat List
A viewset for viewing and editing Full Time Bureaucrats.
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{ "count": 493, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=10", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 402, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The significant aspect of Gupta bureaucracy was that, since it was less organized and elaborate than the Mauryan administration of the third century b.c. (seen in Kautilya’s Arthasastra),it allowed several offices to be combined in the hands of the same person and posts tended to become hereditary. In the absence of close supervision by the state, village affairs were now managed by leading local elements who conducted land transactions without consulting the government.\r\n\r\n\"Similarly in urban administration, organized professional bodies enjoyed considerable autonomy. The law-codes of the Gupta period, which provide detailed information about the functioning of the guilds, even entrusted these corporate bodies with an important share in the administration of justice. With the innumerable ja ̄tis (which were systematized and legalized during this period) governing a large part of the activities of their members, very little was left for central government. Finally, the Gupta kings had to take account of the brahman donees, who enjoyed absolute administrative privileges over the inhabitants of the donated villages. Thus in spite of the strength of the Gupta kings, institutional factors working for decentralization were far stronger during this period. This Gupta admini tration provided the model for the basic administrative structure, both in theory and in practice, throughout the early medieval period.\" §REF§(Chakrabarti 1996: 199) Chakrabarti, K. 1996. The Gupta Kingdom. In History of civilizations of Central Asia, v. 3: The Crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750 pp. 188-210. UNESCO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S8ZACV8X/library§REF§" }, { "id": 403, "polity": { "id": 439, "name": "mn_shiwei", "long_name": "Shiwei", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The following seems to suggest that bureaucracy as a whole was absent. “The Shiwei, in the periods of the Sui and Tang, were relatively weak in the northwestern Manchuria. Their form of social organization appeared fairly loose and still remained at tribal level.”§REF§(Xu 2005, 180)§REF§" }, { "id": 404, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": 1175, "year_to": 1215, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Nizami suggests that the Ghurids may have inherited the Ghaznavids' more complex bureaucracy after conquering their territories.\r\n\r\n“Government machinery in the earlier period was confined to the management of essential government functions, but when Ghazna came under Ghurid control, it was natural that the administrative institutions as developed by the Ghaznavids should be adopted. A certain number of features of the Seljuq administrative system were also taken over. […] The vizier was the head of the civil administration.”§REF§(Nizami 1999, 194) K A Nizami. The Ghurids. M S Asimov. C E Bosworth. eds. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part One. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 405, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred as appointments to positions within the state made directly by the king, and were often people closely related to the King, suggesting bureaucracy was not a full-time position. §REF§Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 134§REF§ However, it is possible that lower-ranked administrators worked full-time." }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"Alexander had apparently hellenized Susa to the extent that the language of administration was Greek, the form of city-state government was Greek, and even the ethnic composition of the area was partially Greek.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GAJ3UGPB\">[Wenke 1981, pp. 303-315]</a> Documents from Susa and Dura Europus show \"the governments of these places preserved the pattern of the Hellenistic city state.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q2833SX6\">[Debevoise 1938]</a>", "description": "\"The advent of the Parthians did not mark a break in the cultural history of the Greek cities, which retained their constitutions and magistrates, their schools, language, and law, long after the decline of Seleucid power.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 10) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§\r\n\r\n Documents from Susa and Dura Europus show \"the governments of these places preserved the pattern of the Hellenistic city state.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xli) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§\r\n\r\nAn example of bureaucratic role in the Seleucid era is the position of <i>dioiketes</i>, or ‘the financial counterpart of the strategos/satrap in each satrapy and the oikonomoi of the hyparchs'. §REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p280§REF§" }, { "id": 407, "polity": { "id": 546, "name": "cn_five_dyn", "long_name": "Five Dynasties Period", "start_year": 906, "end_year": 970 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“All the five dynasties which ruled during the 54 years between the end of the T'ang dynasty (906) and the beginning of the Sung dynasty (960) adopted the administrative system of the late T'ang without any important changes. […] [A] glance at the T'ang system shows that the administrative system contained a lot of specialists, whose knowledge was necessary and who as a compact body tried to remain in their posts in spite of all changes at the top.” §REF§(Eberhad 1951: 280-281) Eberhard, W. 1951. Remarks on the Bureaucracy in North China during the Tenth Century. Oriens 4(2): 280-299. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ACFTR6FZ/library§REF§" }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 409, "name": "bd_bengal_sultanate", "long_name": "Bengal Sultanate", "start_year": 1338, "end_year": 1538 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"A salaried bureaucracy in which relationships were expressed in monetary terms thus remained a lasting legacy of the medieval Iranian political economy.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SGXTBMNU\">[Eaton_Ansari_Qasemi 1989]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 409, "polity": { "id": 780, "name": "bd_chandra_dyn", "long_name": "Chandra Dynasty", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Increasingly, government officers were paid by being assigned to lands which they could manage and earn revenue from, rather than in cash, and thus became part of the samanta class. However, hereditary chiefs “gradually assumed many of the functions of government. They not only assessed and collected land revenue, but also assumed more and more administrative powers, such as the right of awarding punishments and exacting fines on their own, which earlier were generally considered royal privileges. They assumed the right to sublet their land to their followers without the prior permission of the ruler, thus increasing the number of people who drew sustenance from land without working on it themselves.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8N54SUNJ\">[Chandra 2007]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Non-aristocratic officials in non-hereditary positions. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTMFSNTV\">[Kerr 2013, p. 33]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 426, "name": "cn_southern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Song", "start_year": 1127, "end_year": 1279 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": " <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WN3JCFXA\">[Gernet 1962, pp. 62-68]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 423, "name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states", "long_name": "Eastern Zhou", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -256 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"Around 445 BC, Wei started the new wave of self-strengthening reforms by systematizing preexisting practices and introducing innovative institutions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSPZPNV5\">[Hui 2005, p. 85]</a> \"In short, during Qin's early ascendance, all other great powers introduced various elements of self-strengthening reforms such as the mass army, national taxation, household registration, and hierarchical administration.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSPZPNV5\">[Hui 2005, p. 86]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 708, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1495, "end_year": 1579 }, "year_from": 1495, "year_to": 1501, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 414, "polity": { "id": 708, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1495, "end_year": 1579 }, "year_from": 1502, "year_to": 1579, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "The following quote suggests that professional bureaucrats would have existed prior to João III's accession to the throne in 1502 CE, as they are mentioned rather casually. \"For regular advice on affairs of state João III relied on an inner group of his councillors made up of prominent noblemen, churchmen, professional bureaucrats and members of his own family.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Referring to the imperial period generally: \"much of the business of empire and the structure of government had come irretrievably into the hands of the professional bureaucrats.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2HFFBQHC\">[Schwartz 1970]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 416, "polity": { "id": 337, "name": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty", "start_year": 1480, "end_year": 1613 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Full-time specialists<br>At the end of the 16th century “The highest posts in the state apparatus were concentrated in the hands of the predominantly aristocratic elites of the sovereign’s court, and also of the secretarial heads of the chancellery bureaucracy” §REF§Perrie 2006: 268§REF§" }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"before sending a baliliff to a foreign merchant the claimant must submit the case to the alderman of the foreign merchants' guild ... a foreign merchant with a claim against a local resident must seek the aid of a local official (the bailiff, detskii, or the tiun ...); in cases between a foreign and a local merchant, the court will apply the lex loc ...\" Tenth century Smolensk Pravda.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 464) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>15th century so after this period: \"The expansion in economic activity led to the increased use of money in every day life. Government officials who formerly had been paid in kind were now put on money salaries, more and more of the taxes were collected in cash, and, most important, many of the peasants' obligations to their seigniors were converted into money payments, especially in the regions where trade was most active.\"§REF§(Blum 1971, 131) Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>The veche had a chairman which could be a bishop, usually as mediator, occasionally the prince if the discussion wasn't about relations between him and the populace. Decisions by consensus.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 429) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 418, "polity": { "id": 535, "name": "ug_bunyoro_k_2", "long_name": "Bito Dynasty", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "Inferred from the fact that full-time specialised bureaucracy does not seem to have emerged in the broader Great Lakes region prior to the colonial era. For example, in Nkore, \"The royal court served as a judicial and political center, but not as a bureaucratic focal point. The Mugabe's chief minister, the Enganzi, was not a prime minister in the usual sense of leader of government business. He was merely the King's favorite. Neither was there a cabinet nor governmental bureaux [...]. No distinction between the royal and state treasury was made and the heads of local administrative units were not required to attend court or reside at the capital as in Buganda, for instance.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D3FV7SKV\">[Steinhart 1978, p. 144]</a> In Rwanda: \"In this sort of government, administration was not yet institutionalized.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5J4MRHUB\">[Vansina 2004, p. 63]</a> In Burundi, the king seemingly entrusted administration mostly to close relatives and local chiefs: \"Ntare relied on his sons as administrators: he was strong enough to set up his sons, but not strong enough to incorporate these regions fully within central control. [...] During the late nineteenth century, under the reign of Mwezi Gisabo, a four-tiered system of administration emerged: a central area around Muramvya under the control of the king; an area under the administration of his sons or brothers most closely allied to the king; a broad swath further east and south administered by Batare chiefs, the descendants of Ntare; and another zone, covering the western and northwestern areas of the country, under the administration of others, not Baganwa (in fact, they were mostly Hutu authorities). [...] Administrative authorities in the east and south- east, often Batare (descendants of Ntare Rugamba), simply retained their administrative autonomy while acknowledging nominal central court ritual hegemony. Those in the northeast more characteristically undertook open revolt, often by those who sought to overthrow Mwezi.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J5A6DM3P\">[Newbury 2001, pp. 283-284]</a> Moreover, it is curious that, despite the wealth of literature available on this polity, so far we have been unable to find mentions of a bureaucracy, which strongly suggests (without outright confirming) that it was simply not present at this time.", "description": null }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 715, "name": "tz_east_africa_ia_1", "long_name": "Early East Africa Iron Age", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 421, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 422, "polity": { "id": 793, "name": "bd_sena_dyn", "long_name": "Sena Dynasty", "start_year": 1095, "end_year": 1245 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Increasingly, government officers were paid by being assigned to lands which they could manage and earn revenue from, rather than in cash, and thus became part of the samanta class. However, hereditary chiefs “gradually assumed many of the functions of government. They not only assessed and collected land revenue, but also assumed more and more administrative powers, such as the right of awarding punishments and exacting fines on their own, which earlier were generally considered royal privileges. They assumed the right to sublet their land to their followers without the prior permission of the ruler, thus increasing the number of people who drew sustenance from land without working on it themselves.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8N54SUNJ\">[Chandra 2007]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 423, "polity": { "id": 795, "name": "bd_yadava_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Yadava-Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 1080, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Increasingly, government officers were paid by being assigned to lands which they could manage and earn revenue from, rather than in cash, and thus became part of the samanta class. However, hereditary chiefs “gradually assumed many of the functions of government. They not only assessed and collected land revenue, but also assumed more and more administrative powers, such as the right of awarding punishments and exacting fines on their own, which earlier were generally considered royal privileges. They assumed the right to sublet their land to their followers without the prior permission of the ruler, thus increasing the number of people who drew sustenance from land without working on it themselves.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8N54SUNJ\">[Chandra 2007]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "To administer an urban empire \"Yusuf had to rely on administrators outside of his Sanhaja entourage. He surrounded himself with religious scholars, Malikite fuqaha from Andalusia from whom he sought legal advice. ... They offered a ready-made system of law to the Almoravids who were already pre-disposed to a rudimentary, even arbitrary understanding of Islam.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 66)§REF§" }, { "id": 425, "polity": { "id": 284, "name": "hu_avar_khaganate", "long_name": "Avar Khaganate", "start_year": 586, "end_year": 822 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Avar kaghan had councilors.§REF§(Szadecky-Kardoss 1990, 222) Samuel Szadecky-Kardoss. The Avars. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"the later Byzantine use of the same term (logades) to describe graded officials within the Avar Empire that succeeded the Huns\"§REF§Hyun Jin Kim 2015 The Huns p.83-84§REF§" }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Government officials, scribes, coiners. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> \"Leading chiefs as well as civil servants managed the administration.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2BBHSE7J\">[Falola 2002, p. 60]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Government officials, scribes, coiners. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> \"Leading chiefs as well as civil servants managed the administration.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2BBHSE7J\">[Falola 2002, p. 60]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": 1044, "year_to": 1174, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place\".§REF§(Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ Possibly suspected unknown until 1174 CE but the language 'firmly in place' suggests that this administrative structure may have been preceded by an earlier lesser-developed form.<br>Tax-assessor (kamkun) at least from mid-12th century.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": 1175, "year_to": 1287, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place\".§REF§(Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ Possibly suspected unknown until 1174 CE but the language 'firmly in place' suggests that this administrative structure may have been preceded by an earlier lesser-developed form.<br>Tax-assessor (kamkun) at least from mid-12th century.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 226, "name": "ib_banu_ghaniya", "long_name": "Banu Ghaniya", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "This is a quote for the ancestral polity, the Almoravids: To administer the urban Almoravid Empire \"Yusuf had to rely on administrators outside of his Sanhaja entourage. He surrounded himself with religious scholars, Malikite fuqaha from Andalusia from whom he sought legal advice. ... They offered a ready-made system of law to the Almoravids who were already pre-disposed to a rudimentary, even arbitrary understanding of Islam.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 66)§REF§" }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Top officials may have been nobles who were also military commanders.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"literacy was central to Omurtag's regime, for recording and publicizing the services extracted from the nobility.\"§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 291) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Top officials may have been nobles who were also military commanders.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"literacy was central to Omurtag's regime, for recording and publicizing the services extracted from the nobility.\"§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 291) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Top officials may have been nobles who were also military commanders.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"literacy was central to Omurtag's regime, for recording and publicizing the services extracted from the nobility.\"§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 291) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Top officials may have been nobles who were also military commanders.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"literacy was central to Omurtag's regime, for recording and publicizing the services extracted from the nobility.\"§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 291) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 246, "name": "cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period", "start_year": -740, "end_year": -489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "c656 BCE there was a \"grand officer of the state of Chu\"§REF§(Miller 2015, 87-88) Miller, Harry ed. 2015. The Gongyang Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals: A Full Translation. Palgrave Macmilla.§REF§<br>\"During the Spring and Autumn Period, the powerful states such as Qin and Chu set up a new administrative system of provinces and counties ... These governors in the provinces and counties comprised the first bureaucracy in Chinese history.\"§REF§(Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.§REF§<br>\"in terms of administration, aristocratic politics was transformed into bureaucratic politics as the hereditary seigniors were replaced by professional bureaucrats.\"§REF§(Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.§REF§" }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 249, "name": "cn_chu_k_warring_states", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period", "start_year": -488, "end_year": -223 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"Around 445 BC, Wei started the new wave of self-strengthening reforms by systematizing preexisting practices and introducing innovative institutions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSPZPNV5\">[Hui 2005, p. 85]</a> \"In short, during Qin's early ascendance, all other great powers introduced various elements of self-strengthening reforms such as the mass army, national taxation, household registration, and hierarchical administration.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSPZPNV5\">[Hui 2005, p. 86]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 299, "name": "ru_crimean_khanate", "long_name": "Crimean Khanate", "start_year": 1440, "end_year": 1783 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"the Crimean Khanate ... was transformed by the incorporation of forms of political and social organization borrowed from the Ottomans. Tatar customary law (yasa, tore), for instance, coexisted with sharia law and Ottoman state law (kanun), while the khanate's governmental structures and institutions often followed the Ottoman model.§REF§(Klein 2012, 3) Denise Klein. Introduction. Denise Klein. ed. 2012. The Crimean Khanate between East and West. (15th-18th Century). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§ Ottoman central government of this era had a grand vizier, chancellor, land registry official, treasurers, and many sub-clerks." }, { "id": 439, "polity": { "id": 307, "name": "fr_aquitaine_duc_1", "long_name": "Duchy of Aquitaine I", "start_year": 602, "end_year": 768 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Full-time specialists", "description": null }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 715, "name": "tz_east_africa_ia_1", "long_name": "Early East Africa Iron Age", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "Likely no centralisation, and therefore also no bureaucracy; dispersed network of homesteads instead. \"[A]rchaeology[...] suggests these early communities probably consisted of dispersed networks of homesteads, rather than centralised societies (Reid 1994/5; Van Grunderbeek et al. 1983).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBIZGHGA\">[Ashley 2010, p. 146]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 54, "name": "pa_cocle_1", "long_name": "Early Greater Coclé", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "For the considerably later precontact period, Helms has argued that 'Although the ethnohistoric data are very scanty, some degree of \"internal\" administrative associations and responsibilities surely existed between the commoner population of a given territory or \"province\" and the elite cabras, sacos and/or quevis of that territory, who at the very least accepted generalized stewardship of the overall well-being, socially and ideologically, of the population of a given ancestral territory'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 56]</a> She believes cabras, the lowest-ranked elites, would have served as 'local administrators', <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 56]</a> but does not speculate on whether they were full-time. The evidence is therefore not strong enough to justify coding full-time specialist bureaucrats present for the precontact period, and we know even less about this early period of Greater Coclé development (200-700 CE). Panamanian societies before Spanish contact produced no written records, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IPHPU92K\">[Mendizábal_Archibold 2004, p. 14]</a> so it is not clear how such administrators would perform their duties.", "description": null }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"A central hierarchy or ruling strata to control social relations and enforce political order would be necessary to co-ordinate the market workforce and other important functional relations of the site. The existence of an administration can be inferred firstly from the general organisation. The sheer scale of economic activities strongly suggests that such a central paramount authority was established. Secondly, the higher returns that spilled out from the wealth in circulation and increase in the output from craft production and transportation must have provided adequate stimuli for wealthy and elite groups to exercise their control over these sectors and consequently promote the growth of social hierarchy and differentiation.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GGM3RG7F\">[Juma 2004]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"The noticeable decline in the import and internal output of this period set against the expansion of the site and population is an expression of increased complexity that may imply a division of labour that relocated the centres for craftwork to elsewhere, away from the Unguja Ukuu site as the public core area for political functions, administration and defence. This must have overtly distinguished Unguja Ukuu as a seat of urban conduct with an aggregation of buildings, groups of immigrants bringing in the old coinage, a market for subsistence resources from the periphery, and providing services to the population within the site territory and beyond.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GGM3RG7F\">[Juma 2004]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 218, "name": "ma_idrisid_dyn", "long_name": "Idrisids", "start_year": 789, "end_year": 917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The merchants, scholars and administrators formed an elite, the khassa, that made a further contribution to the wealth of the city by consuming the services of a growing class of artisans, who made up the 'ama, or generality of the population.\"§REF§(Pennell 2013) C R Pennell. 2013. Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. London.§REF§<br>\"...one particular genre of Arabic geographical literature that is the most relevant to studies of settlement systems. The genre in question was named al-Masalik wa-l-mamalik (routes and kingdoms) by Blachere (1957:112)... In fact, the earliest example of the Masalik wa-l-mamalik literature is the masalik of Ibn Khurdadhbah (A.D. 885). It was intended for the use of secretaries and military officials in the ‘Abbasid bureaucracy\" §REF§Said Ennahid. 2001. POLITICAL ECONOMY AND SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS OF MEDIEVAL NORTHERN MOROCCO: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL-HISTORICAL APPROACH. pg. 14-15§REF§" }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 407, "name": "in_kakatiya_dyn", "long_name": "Kakatiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1175, "end_year": 1324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "\"Although I am using the word “officer” to designate the lower echelon of Kakatiya subordinates, I do not mean to imply that a coherent administrative structure existed. It is impossible to sustain any notion of bureaucracy or of a structure of discrete official positions in view of the unsystematic distribution of the so‐called administrative titles. For one thing, an individual could hold more than one title concurrently, as we find in the case of Bhaskaradeva who was both a mahāpradhāni and a gaja‐sāhiṇi (SII 6.622). Furthermore, numerous men at any given point in time simultaneously possessed titles like mahāpradhāni (chief minister), sakala‐sēnāpati (commander‐in‐chief), and gaja‐sāhiṇi (commander of the elephant corps). Hence, we have to discard any notion of a rigid organizational setup in which a single individual occupied only one post at a time. Mahāpradhāni, in particular, should be understood as a signifier of rank rather than as an occupational designation.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R67IJ9XP\">[Talbot 2001, p. 157]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 446, "polity": { "id": 389, "name": "in_kamarupa_k", "long_name": "Kamarupa Kingdom", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 1130 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"Officers associated with revenue administration included uparika (officer in charge of the recovery of the uparika tax), uthetika (officer in charge of collecting the uthetika impost) etc. Besides them, there were other officers like Bhandagaradhikrita and Kostagharika, who were in charge of the royal store-house and the treasury, respectively. [...] There were some junior officers like clerks, accountants and scribes attached to the department.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 143]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 447, "polity": { "id": 273, "name": "uz_kangju", "long_name": "Kangju", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Coin mint implies mint manager, mint worker and a court administrator responsible for finance: \"The Kangju traded goods with their C Asian neighbors, with China and Rome; thus they fully participated in SR trade; they even minted their own coins (Roudik 2007, 18). \"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 448, "polity": { "id": 298, "name": "ru_kazan_khanate", "long_name": "Kazan Khanate", "start_year": 1438, "end_year": 1552 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Kazan, and, Isker [the capital of the Siberian Khanate] with all their administrative buildings were captured by the 'White Tsar' do not leave the opportunity to expect that any written documents were saved (unless, of course, they were not set in stone).\"§REF§(Ivanov 2015, 142) Vladimir Alexandrovich Ivanov. October 2015. Bashkiria and the Khanate of Kazan. The Problem of Administrative and Political Relationship. European Journal of Science and Theology. Vol. 11. No. 5. 141-149.§REF§<br>\"Representatives of all four non-Tatar ethnic groups had to pay tribute, known as iasak, to the Khan. Members of the upper class were responsible for its collection. Otherwise they were left largely to their own devices, and lived in communities that were characterized by tribal and clan relationships and religious ideas of an animist kind.\"§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 25) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 449, "polity": { "id": 241, "name": "ao_kongo_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo", "start_year": 1491, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Its political organization centered on the person of the king, who ruled with absolute power from his capital city over large territories through governors, or mani, he sent from his court to provincial capitals.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014, 2) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§<br>Embassies: \"In the first decade of contact [after 1483 CE], Kongo and Portugal exchanged hostages, dispatched embassies, and established a cordial diplomatic relationship.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014, 4) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§<br>\"Since most servants were not granted a regular salary, the king used gifts to retain as well as reward a sizable retinue of officials, soldiers, musicians, pages, and advisers at his court.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 30) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br>\"The Kongo traditions ... stress that the founder of the state had conquered the people of the country, and his rights to govern and tax them derived from this, rights he partitioned out to 'captains' who were appointed by him, not for life but for the performance of service.'\"§REF§(Thornton 1998, 80) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>Kongo had \"state officials\" paid for by the state.§REF§(Thornton 1998, 81) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"The Kongo kingdom, based on tropical agriculture, evolved a sophisticated state system, an efficient bureaucracy, and an advanced culture.\"§REF§(Minahan 2002, 1011) James Minahan. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World A-Z. Greenwood Press. Westport.§REF§" }, { "id": 450, "polity": { "id": 290, "name": "ge_georgia_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Georgia II", "start_year": 975, "end_year": 1243 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Georgian king had a civil service.§REF§(Suny 1994, 34) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br>Giorgi III (IV) (1156-1184 CE) \"raised men of low birth to high office in order to break the aristocratic monopoly in the government.\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 37) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§" }, { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "it_sicily_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Professional bureaucracy. §REF§(Abulafia 2004, 73)§REF§" }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 53, "name": "pa_la_mula_sarigua", "long_name": "La Mula-Sarigua", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "Administrative structures in Central Panama during this period are not well understood, and the evidence for social stratification and centralized decision-making is weak. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6ERS93SR\">[Hoopes_Peregrine_Ember 2001]</a> Panamanian societies before Spanish contact produced no written records, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IPHPU92K\">[Mendizábal_Archibold 2004, p. 14]</a> so it is not clear how bureaucrats would have performed their duties.", "description": null } ] }