Full Time Bureaucrat List
A viewset for viewing and editing Full Time Bureaucrats.
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{ "count": 493, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Duranni empire was based on the accretion of political power with-in a pre-existing authoritarian-tribal rule of the Abdali Pashtuns and the Shah as its unchallenged leader. It was not based on a defined permanent theory of statecraft, but rather a synthesis of of Islamic concepts of kingship. Governance took place in part through a loose council of Durrani Sadozai Chieftans. What short term Administrative post that did exist were given to members of the governing tribes. The Duranni were a nation in arms rather than bureaucrats. §REF§Saikal, Amin, <i>Modern Afghanistan: A struggle for Survival</i> pp. 22-24§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": 1025, "year_to": 1174, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Unclear.\r\n\r\nNizami suggests a rudimentary bureaucratic system before the conquest of Ghazna.\r\n\r\n“Government machinery in the earlier period was confined to the management of essential government functions, but when Ghazna came under Ghurid control, it was natural that the administrative institutions as developed by the Ghaznavids should be adopted. A certain number of features of the Seljuq administrative system were also taken over. […] The vizier was the head of the civil administration.”§REF§(Nizami 1999, 194) K A Nizami. The Ghurids. M S Asimov. C E Bosworth. eds. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part One. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. Delhi.§REF§\r\n\r\nThomas suggests that nepotism was prevalent in higher administrative ranks, which perhaps suggests that it was present all the way down the ladder as well. Moreover, Thomas briefly refers to the lack of a robust, coherent centralized imperial administrative structure.\r\n\r\n“… in the center and west of the Ghurid empire, Ghiyath al-Din continued the Ghurid tradition of assigning appanages, or provinces, to his relatives, who displayed varying degrees of loyalty and were prone to flee in the face of adversity. This lack of a robust, coherent centralized imperial administrative structure contributed to the demise of the dynasty and its empire.”§REF§Thomas, David C. 2016. Ghurid Sultanate. In MacKenzie (ed) The Encyclopedia of Empires. John Wiley & Sons. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EJJTSHCM/library§REF§\r\n\r\nAt the same time, Husseini points to the existence of bureaucratic officials, though much key information about them appears to be unknown, including whether they received a state salary, which would help us determine whether or not they were professional, and therefore may have received some sort of official training. Equally, however, Husseini does suggest that the role of muqaddam may have been assigned to people for their knowledge of a region rather than through nepotism.\r\n\r\n“Persian documents from Ghur offer new information on the administrative role of the Ghurid Muqaddam. In all the relevant documents, the term Muqaddam is specifically associated with the village (qarya). The Muqaddam was an influential person within his village, had good knowledge of his region, and was recognized as the village headmen by the administration in Ghur. In KMS 36, the Muqaddams of a place called Bandalizh are mentioned alongside the notables (Khwajagān), suggesting that the Muqaddams were important figures in their villages. In some documents they are praised with a specific formula, dāma ʿizzahum (“may their glory continue!”). Possibly, their knowledge about the village and their social position as local notables paved the way for them to be the Muqaddam.\r\n\r\n“Whether the Muqaddam was appointed by the state is not clear from the KMS documents. However, the Muqaddam is mentioned in documents issued by the fiscal department suggesting that he worked for the state. Whether the Muqaddam received a state salary or was entitled to a portion of the yield is also not mentioned. It is also not known if the state share was taken after the harvest was collected and winnowed or before that. In any case, the Muqaddam was allowed to borrow grain from the government stores if he needed it. We know this because one of the KMS documents include a letter in which certain Muqaddams are ordered to return the grain that they borrowed.\r\n\r\n“The main responsibility of the Muqaddam was to collect ʿushr when it was ready and to check if his village paid the state share in full.33 In KMS 34, the Muqaddams of Bandalizh were asked to make sure that all ordinary (ʿām) and elite (khās)̣ people paid the taxes.34 The collection of ʿushr was done in the presence of the state’s agent, the Muʿtamid. The Muqaddam had no right to collect the state share without the Muʿtamid’s presence and without his direct supervision.”§REF§(Husseini 2021, 98-99) Husseini, Said Reza. 2021. The Muqaddam Represented in the pre-Mongol Persian Documents from Ghur. Afghanistan 4(2): 91–113. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ID6DBB75/library§REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The evidence is unclear. The Bactrian Greeks were on a cultural frontier between Iranian and Indian territories, but seemed to have maintained a proud and enduring identity. Whether this was extended to a full time bureaucracy is unknown at this point. The Seleucid empire did have full time bureaucrats. It is therefore inferred that some element of this system was preserved after independence. §REF§Mairs, Rachel. \"The Hellenistic Far East: From the Oikoumene to the Community.\" Shifting Social Imaginaries in the Hellenistic Period: Narratives, Practices, and Images (2012).§REF§ §REF§Rougemont, Georges. \"Hellenism in Central Asia and the North-West of the Indo-Pakistan Sub-Continent: The Epigraphic Evidence.\" Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 18, no. 1 (2012): 175-182.§REF§<br>The city of Ai Khanoum, of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, had \"a Persian-style administrative center\"§REF§(Mori 2015, 93) Mori, A. in Hose M and Schenker D. 2015. A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.§REF§ so departments and scribes can be inferred from such an apparatus." }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " unknown §REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, pp. 141-144§REF§ imitations of Sassanian coinage were made. §REF§Litvinskii, B.A., and Unesco. “THE HEPHTHALITE EMPIRE.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. III The Crossroads of Civilizations A.D. 250 - 750, 138-65. Paris: Unesco, 1992, pp.149 Skaff, Jonathan Karam. \"Sasanian and Arab-Sasanian Silver Coins from Turfan: Their Relationship to International Trade and the Local Economy.\" Asia Major 11, no. 2 (1998): 67-115.§REF§ - surely a mint is evidence for a full-time government employee, at least for the individual who ran the mint." }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " unknown §REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, pp. 141-144§REF§ imitations of Sassanian coinage were made. §REF§Litvinskii, B.A., and Unesco. “THE HEPHTHALITE EMPIRE.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. III The Crossroads of Civilizations A.D. 250 - 750, 138-65. Paris: Unesco, 1992, pp.149 Skaff, Jonathan Karam. \"Sasanian and Arab-Sasanian Silver Coins from Turfan: Their Relationship to International Trade and the Local Economy.\" Asia Major 11, no. 2 (1998): 67-115.§REF§ - surely a mint is evidence for a full-time government employee, at least for the individual who ran the mint." }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"It is tempting to draw an analogy with the vast state of the Kushans. This is not only because the Kidarites claimed to be the successors ... ; a no less important factor is that the former nomadic invaders came into possession of vast territories inhabited by settled agricultural peoples with a culture and traditions dating back many centuries, just as had been the case with the Tokharians ... who created the Kushan Empire. It seems likely that the administrative and government structure created by the Kushans was left largely intact under the Kidarites.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 132) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " the Kushan city had a special official, the dovarika, who wouldshut the city gates at night show the way to strangers. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " present for Greco-Bactrians in 200 BCE" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Bureaucracy of 120,285 officials in 2 CE. \"Loewe speculates that this figure may not include the lower-level officials at the grass roots.\"§REF§(Zhao 2015, 63) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"In 311 the Xiongnu army captured and destroyed Luoyang - they reportedly put to death some 30,000 Jin officials.\"§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 183) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The evidence for an institutionalized Erlitou administrative system seems too thin to code 'present' for full-time bureaucrats. \"It has long been asserted that the incipient origins of many bureaucratic organs can be traced back to the Hsia and that a sort of proto-bureaucracy is already discernible. Although important individuals could simply have been deputed to undertake specific responsibilities as needed, administering the realm would no doubt have required minimally defined bureaucratic positions with at least rudimentary authority. The early rulers presumably established a limited but basically effective core of officials under their direct control, a sort of working staff, with responsibility for crucial activities being broadly construed. Titles such as ssu t’u (“minister of agriculture”) and “chief archer” then presumably evolved from repeatedly assigned tasks.\" §REF§(Sawyer 2011, 147)§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Authority was informal on the village and hamlet level: 'The Magpie Miao live in villages, occasionally compact but normally consisting of a cluster of separate hamlets. These are located on mountain slopes, usually far enough away from main transportation routes to be inaccessible and readily defensible. The Miao lack any political organization of their own, and are thoroughly integrated into the Chinese administrative system. The basic political, as well as economic and social unit, is the village. Villages are grouped into townships and divided into hamlets of about ten to twenty households each. The headmen of both the village and the hamlet are appointed by the chief of the township. The members of different villages or hamlets are bound principally by affinal ties. They may cooperate for the common good, but they lack any formal organization of an indigenous character. Disputes between members of the same hamlet are settled, if possible, within the hamlet. Those between members of different hamlets of the same village are adjudicated by a council composed of the village headman and the heads of the hamlets involved. If this council cannot effect a settlement, the litigants have a right to carry their dispute to the chief of the township or even to the Chinese court of the county.' §REF§Rui, Yifu 1960. “Magpie Miao Of Southern Szechuan”, 145§REF§ The Hmong population was subject to Chinese administrative integration even before the republican period: 'From Song on, in periods of relative peace, government control was exercised through the tusi system of indirect rule by appointed native headmen who collected taxes, organized corvée, and kept the peace. Miao filled this role in Hunan and eastern Guizhou, but farther west the rulers were often drawn from a hereditary Yi nobility, a system that lasted into the twentieth century. In Guizhou, some tusi claimed Han ancestry, but were probably drawn from the ranks of assimilated Bouyei, Dong, and Miao. Government documents refer to the \"Sheng Miao\" (raw Miao), meaning those living in areas beyond government control and not paying taxes or labor service to the state. In the sixteenth century, in the more pacified areas, the implementation of the policy of gaitu guiliu began the replacement of native rulers with regular civilian and military officials, a few of whom were drawn from assimilated minority families. Land became a commodity, creating both landlords and some freeholding peasants in the areas affected. In the Yunnan-Guizhou border area, the tusi system continued and Miao purchase of land and participation in local markets was restricted by law until the Republican period (1911-1949).' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ 'Throughout the Republican period, the government favored a policy of assimilation for the Miao and strongly discouraged expressions of ethnicity. Southwestern China came under Communist government control by 1951, and Miao participated in land reform, collectivization, and the various national political campaigns.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ The Chinese administration established a bureaucratic infrastructure in the towns: 'Like Kweiyang, the hsien city of Lung-li was in an open plain, but a narrow one. The space between the mountains was sufficient for a walled town of one long street between the east and west gates and one or two on either side. There were fields outside the city walls. Its normal population was between three and four thousand, augmented during the war by the coming of some “companies” for the installation and repair of charcoal burners in motor lorries and the distillation of grain alcohol for fuel, an Army officers' training school, and the engineers' corps of the railway being built through the town from Kwangsi to Kweiyang. To it the people of the surrounding countryside, including at least three groups of Miao and the Chung-chia, went to market. It was also the seat of the hsien government and contained a middle school, postal and telegraph offices, and a cooperative bank, with all of which the non-Chinese, as well as the Chinese, had some dealings. A few of the more well-to-do families sent one of their boys to the middle school. Cases which could not be settled in the village or by the lien pao official, who was also a Chinese, were of necessity brought to the hsien court, as well as cases which involved both Miao and Chinese.' §REF§Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, 40b§REF§ The administration relied on clerics and other professionals, as evidenced in primary sources: 'Article 9. The secretary of the Bureau will receive his orders from the chief of the Bureau, and will attend to such matters as the writing of official despatches of the Bureau, the keeping of the archives, and directing the copying of documents. Article 10. The clerks will receive orders from the chief of the Bureau, and, under the direction of the department head, will assist in carrying out the various duties of the department. Article 11. The copyists will receive their orders from the chief of the Bureau and the departmental heads, and, under the direction of department members and the secretary, shall be responsible for copying despatches and telegrams.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 179§REF§ The expanding Chinese state also relied on some quasi-feudal arrangements in the Hmong area until the 1920s: 'Opium was also an important feature of the economy until the 1920s: the Hua Miao grew it, but they had no control over its sale, and very few were attracted to its use. Most Hua Miao villages were tenant communities on lands held by Han or Hui, or more commonly in this area, by members of the elite strata of the Yi (also called Nosu or Black Yi). In the pacification of the region, large tracts of land were awarded to the Yi nobility by the expanding Chinese state. In return for the right to claim rentals and labor service, the Yi “native officials” (tu si) collected taxes for the state and generally maintained law and order within the boundaries of their estate holdings. This feudal system lasted until the 1920s. The Hua Miao met their obligations to these overlords by the forced growing of the opium poppy, payments in kind or in cash or a specified number of days of labor service (agricultural work, collecting of firewood, household service, transport work). However, as tenants they were free to move residence, to change landlords and to make their own marriage arrangements, rights that were not granted to the slave class within Yi society. Within the ethnic stratification of the area, the Hua Miao ranked below the Yi nobility and freeborn classes, and below the Hui and the Han, but their status was better than that of the Yi slaves-some of whom were Han who had been forced into slavery. Relations between the Hua Miao and their Yi overlords were tense but in general the Yi made no attempt to force the Hua Miao to assimilate to Yi cultural [Page 65] practices, and at times the Miao fled from the Han to the protection of the Yi.' §REF§Diamond, Norma 1993. “Ethnicity And The State: The Hua Miao Of Southwest China”, 64§REF§ Given the participation of Hmong petty officials in the administrative structure, we have decided to code the variable 'present'. We have provisionally assumed this to be true of the A-Hmao as well, but this is open to re-evaluation (see military sections above)." }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Hmong were traditionally lead by tusi headmen who were responsible to the Chinese state. There was no writing system for the Hmong language before 1905 so there would have been no specialist administrators unconnected to the Chinese state. §REF§(Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures.§REF§§REF§Duffy, John M. (2007). Writing from these roots: literacy in a Hmong-American community. University of Hawaii Press.§REF§ Whether imported from the east or selected by Qing rulers, full-time regional administrators came to dominate the Hmong." }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"During the Spring and Autumn Period, the powerful states such as Qin and Chu set up a new administrative system of provinces and counties ... These governors in the provinces and counties comprised the first bureaucracy in Chinese history.\"§REF§(Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.§REF§<br>\"in terms of administration, aristocratic politics was transformed into bureaucratic politics as the hereditary seigniors were replaced by professional bureaucrats.\"§REF§(Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Unknown. According to the Shangshu Yaodian 尚书·尧典 there was a king and officials.§REF§(He 2013, 268)§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"fully empire-wide bureaucracy\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 109)§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There were about 40,000 graded officials in late Northern Sung.§REF§(Hartman 2015, 33)§REF§ Professional tax system. §REF§(Liu 2015, 48)§REF§<br>Time series civil + military officials: 13,000: Early Sung; 17,300: 1049 CE; 24,000: 1064-1067 CE; 34,000: 1080 CE; 28,300: 1086 CE; 43,000: 1112 CE; 33,516: 1191 CE; 42,434: 1196 CE; 37,807: 1201 CE; 38,870: 1213 CE. §REF§(Hartman 2015, 53)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Taihe Reforms 472-492: \"They included procedures for evaluating and promoting regional and local officials; graded official salaries...\"§REF§(Dardess, J W. 2010. Governing China: 150-1850. Hackett Publishing. p.14)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The number of both clerks and secretaries grew dramatically over the course of the Qing dynasty in response to the growing complexity of governmental tasks. Rowe refers to the \"empire-wide clerical diaspora\" of literate males part of the state and local level administrative apparatus. §REF§(Rowe, 2010, p.51-52)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. Civil Service, Military bureaucracy §REF§(Dai 2017, 329-333)§REF§ Grand Secretariat, Six Boards (Revenue, Civil Office, War, Criminal Justice, Public Works, and Rites) each with large clerical staffs, presidents and vice presidents. §REF§(Smith 2010, 34)§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "King appointed a government §REF§(Roberts 2003)§REF§ and recorded official transactions. §REF§(Keay 2009, 49)§REF§<br>\"The king was served by officials who held specialized positions of authority and function; and the officials belonged to a hereditary class of aristocrats, usually related to the king himself.\"§REF§(The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE. Spice Digest, Fall 2007. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “At the central government level, the Sui Dynasty restored the centralized system created by the Han and Wei, featuring the Three Departments and Six Ministries which governed all state affairs. Within this structure, the function of decision-making was separated from that of evaluation and deliberation, and from implementation, each of these three being performed by different bodies, which enhanced the government’s control of power. In local government areas, the existing three-tier form of government was reduced to a two-tier system, resulting in a more effective control of local affairs by the central government.” §REF§(Liu, Hong. 2009. Chinese Business: Landscapes and Strategies. Oxon: Routledge, 13)§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The T'ang bureaucracy was not only enlarged but it also ceased ultimately to be the monopoly of the great families. Due to the steady development of the examination system and the expansion of education which was connected with this, the entry into officialdom was widened so as to include the majority of the landowning class.\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 118)§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The examination system was initiated in a partial form during the Han but had been in abeyance during practically all of the Period of Division. Under the Sui and T'ang it was taken up again and developed still further, reaching its full scope by the 8th century and becoming an important, although not the major, form for the recruiting of officials to the government bureaucracy. It should be noted, however, that the descendants of high officials had the right of entry into the register of officials without taking examinations.\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 119)§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Around 445 BC, Wei started the new wave of self-strengthening reforms by systematizing preexisting practices and introducing innovative institutions.\"§REF§(Tin-bor Hui 2005, 85) Tin-bor Hui, Victoria. 2005. War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"In short, during Qin's early ascendance, all other great powers introduced various elements of self-strengthening reforms such as the mass army, national taxation, household registration, and hierarchical administration.\"§REF§(Tin-bor Hui 2005, 86) Tin-bor Hui, Victoria. 2005. War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"In the unearthed Donghai commandery documents dated to the late Western Han Dynasty, the total number of officials in that commandery is listed as 2,203, and most of these officials were grassroots personnel such as accessory clerk (492), chief of the officials' hostel (688), and dou-salary clerks (501). We know that the Western Han Empire comprised 1,587 county-level government units at the time and the Donghai Commandery contained 38 counties. Based on the data, the estimated total number of officials below the commandery level is 2,203 x (1,587/38) = 92,004. Including the officials of the state-level government, the officials of the provincial level government, and officials at different censorial offices, the total number of 120,285 officials is a believable figure, and that figure should include the grassroots officials.\"§REF§(Zhao 2015, 63-64) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Edward Shaughnessy and Li Feng both write that a bureaucratic government with full-time bureaucrats was present in the Western Zhou. Shaughnessy points to reforms in 950 CE that led to the \"appointment of individuals - often without any apparent relationship to the king\". §REF§(Shaughnessy 1999, 293) Shaughnessy \"Western Zhou History\" in Loewe, Michael. Shaughnessy, Edward L. 2009. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ According to Li Feng, the Western Zhou central bureaucracy had two branches: the Ministry (卿事寮) and the Secretariat (太史寮). In the ministry, the three major positions (参有司) were the Supervisor of Land, Supervisor of Construction, and the Supervisor of Horses. The major positions in the Secretariat were the Scribe (史), Invocator (祝), and the Document Maker (作册). The Royal Household was a separate independent system headed by Zai (宰), and the Six Armies and Eight Armies were another independent system. §REF§(Li Feng. 2001. \" 'Offices' in Bronze Inscriptions and Western Zhou Government.\" <i>Early China</i> 26/27: 39-40. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/XDQ9AKTJ/itemKey/FVR2NVJ3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/XDQ9AKTJ/itemKey/FVR2NVJ3</a>).§REF§ A generic term for the Zhou government was the \"hundred bureaus\".§REF§(Feng 2006, 101) Feng, Li. 2006. Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"Li is also able to find that, as the Western Zhou government developed, fewer and fewer official appointments were hereditary in nature It became a routine that the appointees started their careers very young at junior levels, and then followed a lengthy path of promotion across various government divisions (experiences in the military being a plus), and finally to the top of government. The lengthy and in some cases complicated paths show that the Western Zhou government was hierarchical with layered ranks of officials.\"§REF§(Zhao 2015, 58) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>According to Herrlee G. Creel, centralized government with administrative system run by non-professional bureaucrats who had fiefdoms. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 14)§REF§ Li Feng argues that Creel's hypothesis lacks sufficient evidence. §REF§(Li Feng. 2001. \" 'Offices' in Bronze Inscriptions and Western Zhou Government.\" <i>Early China</i> 26/27: 2. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/XDQ9AKTJ/itemKey/FVR2NVJ3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/XDQ9AKTJ/itemKey/FVR2NVJ3</a>).§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " civilian and military bureaucracy §REF§(Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File.§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Various 'public works' are suggestive of some form of administrative organization, but not sufficient to justify coding full-time bureaucrats present.<br>\"Ciudad Perdida was the largest settlement in a vast network of communities connected by paved stone stairways and roads. This physical network also marked regional networks based on exchange, craft specialization, and presumably religion.\" §REF§(Moore 2014, 395)§REF§<br>\"Canals, subterranean drainages, common bathing and washing pools, and large water reservoirs in coastal and upland sites are among the more obvious “public works” found in these towns (Mason 1931, Reichel-Dolmatoff and Dussán 1955, Lleras 1985, Cadavid and Herrera 1985).\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 56)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists. Shuar political authority was informal and decentralized: 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ '“From the statements I have previously made as to the distribution of the Jibaro tribes it appears that their social organization is loose. In fact, the whole people is split up into a great number of tribes which in their turn are sub-divided into smaller clans or septs comprising a few families closely related to one another by blood. These sub-tribes do not form village communities; each family inhabits its own big communal house (héa), but these are not situated close to one another, they lie scattered here and there in the virgin forest. Generally one has to march for one or several hours to arrive at the next house. Each Jibaro house forms in fact a separate and independent social, political, and economic unit with its own household, its own plantations in the vicinity of the house, and its own ruler or chief, the oldest family father who, at any rate in time of peace, is not controlled by anybody. It is much the same feature that we meet in other parts of tropical South America, where the impenetrable virgin forests necessarily lead to social disintegration, which is further increased by the general anti-social tendencies of the Indians. The state of things found among the Jibaros, however, is in many respects unique.' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 183p§REF§ Some more prominent leaders emerged as well: 'Four or five years ago there was a strong chief on the Upano River named Tuki, known to the Ecuadoreans as José Grande. In the manner previously described, all of the curakas from Macas on the Upano River to Mendez on the Paute River became subchiefs under him until he was generally recognized as the strongest of all of the Jivaro curakas. However, he was beginning to grow old by this time and some of his subcurakas were strong men in their own right. About 2 years ago, Ambusha, who had been gradually gaining in power and becoming famous for his head-hunting activities, split off with his own group, taking several curakas and their men with him. A little later Utita did the same thing. At the time of the writer's visit (1931), although Tuki was recognized by the Government of Ecuador as being head chief of the Macas-Mendez region, actually he had lost all power excepting that over his own family group and was in reality no more than a capito. These divisions of the organization, if it may be termed such, took place apparently without any ill-feeling or formal announcements.' §REF§Stirling, Matthew Williams 1938. “Historical And Ethnographical Material On The Jivaro Indians”, 40§REF§ The Shuar bartered with whites and other Amerindians: 'The commercial activities of the Jivaro are very restricted. In the early days of European contact hogs and chickens were raised for sale to those of European background. Salt, a rare commodity in the region, was gathered in clay pots from a few brackish springs in the area, allowed to evaporate, and the resulting hardened ball of salt used in exchange transactions with neighboring tribal groups. The Jivaro were famous for the shrinking of the human heads () of their enemies (actually only the skin). Passing out of Jivaro country through a series of exchanges, these heads eventually found their way into the hands of traders who brought them down the Amazon to Para where they were sold. Soon the traders had a burgeoning trade in these items, and the Jivaro were hard-put to keep up with the demand. The Indians were by no means particular as to whose head was used, and advance orders were taken and filled. Eventually this native \"industry\" was brought to a halt by the Ecuadorian and Peruvian governments although by the late twentieth century life-like replicas of the heads made from animal skins are still being sold commercially.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ There was no bureaucratic penetration of Shuar territory at the time: '“Rising in the western foothills of the Cordillera Oriental the Rio Zamora flows through Loja, where it is joined by the Rio Malacatos. ( ) Ten miles farther north, in confluence with the Rio de las Juntas, it breaks through the Andes and enters the province of Oriente, the Amazon region of Ecuador, comprising a northwestern part of the basin of the great river. Vast in extent and largely unknown, unexplored and unmapped, this territory has always been a bone of contention among the republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru. But although the particular portion of it which I visited, on a reconnaissance of the Rio Zamora, was supposedly under the sovereignty of Ecuador, no evidence of administrative authority was to be found there, nor did the savages of the Jíbaro tribe who live there acknowledge allegiance to the government at Quito.”' §REF§Hermessen, J. L. 1917. “Journey On The Rio Zamora, Ecuador”, 435§REF§ The same seems to be true for missionary attempts: 'Since all attempts to win back the lost territories by force of arms were unsuccessful, there was recourse to the cross in order to bend the Indians again under the yoke of slavery by this apparently gentle means. The missionaries were successful among some tribes, but the Jívaros turned away all intruders and have maintained their freedom up to our time. Only the small mission of Mácas, inhabited by the Quichua Indians, is located in their territory, and neither the secular clergy nor the Jesuit fathers, who have alternately tried their luck there, have been successful in making converts.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 2§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists. Shuar political authority was informal and decentralized: 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ '“From the statements I have previously made as to the distribution of the Jibaro tribes it appears that their social organization is loose. In fact, the whole people is split up into a great number of tribes which in their turn are sub-divided into smaller clans or septs comprising a few families closely related to one another by blood. These sub-tribes do not form village communities; each family inhabits its own big communal house (héa), but these are not situated close to one another, they lie scattered here and there in the virgin forest. Generally one has to march for one or several hours to arrive at the next house. Each Jibaro house forms in fact a separate and independent social, political, and economic unit with its own household, its own plantations in the vicinity of the house, and its own ruler or chief, the oldest family father who, at any rate in time of peace, is not controlled by anybody. It is much the same feature that we meet in other parts of tropical South America, where the impenetrable virgin forests necessarily lead to social disintegration, which is further increased by the general anti-social tendencies of the Indians. The state of things found among the Jibaros, however, is in many respects unique.' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 183p§REF§ Some more prominent leaders emerged as well: 'Four or five years ago there was a strong chief on the Upano River named Tuki, known to the Ecuadoreans as José Grande. In the manner previously described, all of the curakas from Macas on the Upano River to Mendez on the Paute River became subchiefs under him until he was generally recognized as the strongest of all of the Jivaro curakas. However, he was beginning to grow old by this time and some of his subcurakas were strong men in their own right. About 2 years ago, Ambusha, who had been gradually gaining in power and becoming famous for his head-hunting activities, split off with his own group, taking several curakas and their men with him. A little later Utita did the same thing. At the time of the writer's visit (1931), although Tuki was recognized by the Government of Ecuador as being head chief of the Macas-Mendez region, actually he had lost all power excepting that over his own family group and was in reality no more than a capito. These divisions of the organization, if it may be termed such, took place apparently without any ill-feeling or formal announcements.' §REF§Stirling, Matthew Williams 1938. “Historical And Ethnographical Material On The Jivaro Indians”, 40§REF§ The Shuar bartered with whites and other Amerindians: 'The commercial activities of the Jivaro are very restricted. In the early days of European contact hogs and chickens were raised for sale to those of European background. Salt, a rare commodity in the region, was gathered in clay pots from a few brackish springs in the area, allowed to evaporate, and the resulting hardened ball of salt used in exchange transactions with neighboring tribal groups. The Jivaro were famous for the shrinking of the human heads () of their enemies (actually only the skin). Passing out of Jivaro country through a series of exchanges, these heads eventually found their way into the hands of traders who brought them down the Amazon to Para where they were sold. Soon the traders had a burgeoning trade in these items, and the Jivaro were hard-put to keep up with the demand. The Indians were by no means particular as to whose head was used, and advance orders were taken and filled. Eventually this native \"industry\" was brought to a halt by the Ecuadorian and Peruvian governments although by the late twentieth century life-like replicas of the heads made from animal skins are still being sold commercially.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ There was no bureaucratic penetration of Shuar territory at the time: '“Rising in the western foothills of the Cordillera Oriental the Rio Zamora flows through Loja, where it is joined by the Rio Malacatos. ( ) Ten miles farther north, in confluence with the Rio de las Juntas, it breaks through the Andes and enters the province of Oriente, the Amazon region of Ecuador, comprising a northwestern part of the basin of the great river. Vast in extent and largely unknown, unexplored and unmapped, this territory has always been a bone of contention among the republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru. But although the particular portion of it which I visited, on a reconnaissance of the Rio Zamora, was supposedly under the sovereignty of Ecuador, no evidence of administrative authority was to be found there, nor did the savages of the Jíbaro tribe who live there acknowledge allegiance to the government at Quito.”' §REF§Hermessen, J. L. 1917. “Journey On The Rio Zamora, Ecuador”, 435§REF§ The same seems to be true for missionary attempts: 'Since all attempts to win back the lost territories by force of arms were unsuccessful, there was recourse to the cross in order to bend the Indians again under the yoke of slavery by this apparently gentle means. The missionaries were successful among some tribes, but the Jívaros turned away all intruders and have maintained their freedom up to our time. Only the small mission of Mácas, inhabited by the Quichua Indians, is located in their territory, and neither the secular clergy nor the Jesuit fathers, who have alternately tried their luck there, have been successful in making converts.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 2§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Petry 1998, 235)§REF§. Saladin inherited a professional bureaucracy from the Fatimids.§REF§(Nicolle 2011) Nicolle, D. 2011. Saladin. Osprey Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Djer introduced permanent institutions, royal domain got a name different from the king, division of labour and hierarchy increased.§REF§(Engel 2013, 20-38)§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Djer introduced permanent institutions, royal domain got a name different from the king, division of labour and hierarchy increased.§REF§(Engel 2013, 20-38)§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Individuals at central government/court would have been needed to process the tax receipts. if Egyptian tradition had been followed from the Saite period one of the chief officers of state may have been the vizier. There also would likely have been specialist scribes." }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Although mamluks could marry, their children could never become mamluks. Thus, the foreign elite had constantly to be replenished by fresh recruits from the northern borderlands of Islam, educated in the discipline of a military household, and dependent for their manumission and their subsequent promotion upon their professional patrons and superiors.\"§REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Professional bureaucrats recruited from the ranks of enslaved people and free people (e.g. tax administrators were mostly free Copts).§REF§(Korotayev Andrey. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. May 2020.)§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Although mamluks could marry, their children could never become mamluks. Thus, the foreign elite had constantly to be replenished by fresh recruits from the northern borderlands of Islam, educated in the discipline of a military household, and dependent for their manumission and their subsequent promotion upon their professional patrons and superiors.\"§REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Professional bureaucrats recruited from the ranks of enslaved people and free people (e.g. tax administrators were mostly free Copts).§REF§(Korotayev Andrey. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. May 2020.)§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Although mamluks could marry, their children could never become mamluks. Thus, the foreign elite had constantly to be replenished by fresh recruits from the northern borderlands of Islam, educated in the discipline of a military household, and dependent for their manumission and their subsequent promotion upon their professional patrons and superiors.\"§REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Professional bureaucrats recruited from the ranks of enslaved people and free people (e.g. tax administrators were mostly free Copts).§REF§(Korotayev Andrey. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. May 2020.)§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": -3550, "year_to": -3401, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "absent<br>Naqada I-IIB<br>Naqada IIC-III<br>disputed_present_absent<br>Trade and recording<br>Probably the earliest evidence of bureaucratic processes can be observed in relation to trade and recording, and controlling of access to some goods which was standing behind that trade. Presumably it was not so much a full-bureaucracy but a set of obligations for a certain group of people.<br>From the Naqada IIC and Naqada IID existence of an administrative apparatus is well represented in the works of Andelkovic (2004) and Hendrickx (2002).§REF§Andelković, B. 2004. \"Paramets of Statehood in Predynastic Egypt\". [in:] Hendrickx,S., Adams B. et al. [ed.]. Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference \"Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,\" Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Leuven:Peters Publishers. pg: 1048.§REF§§REF§Honoré, E. 2007. \"Earliest Cylinder-Seal Glyptic in Egypt: From Greater Mesopotamia to Naqada\". paper from The International Conference in Naqada and Qus region’s heritage. Naqada. pg: 39,43.§REF§<br>However there is currently are only indirect sources of evidence. We can name “artifacts of administration”§REF§Andelković, B. 2004. \"Paramets of Statehood in Predynastic Egypt\". [in:] Hendrickx,S., Adams B. et al. [ed.]. Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference \"Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,\" Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Leuven:Peters Publishers. pg: 1048.§REF§ such as cylinder and stamp seals, seal impressions, labels, etc.<br>Altogether, those artifacts and architecture indicate the beginning of bureaucracy apparatus on the quite developed if not centralized level. Not all scientists, however, agree that existence of full-time, centralized bureaucracy is without any doubt. They rather talk about a “simple form of administration.”§REF§Wengrow, D. 2006. The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformation of North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg:264.§REF§." }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": -3400, "year_to": -3300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "absent<br>Naqada I-IIB<br>Naqada IIC-III<br>disputed_present_absent<br>Trade and recording<br>Probably the earliest evidence of bureaucratic processes can be observed in relation to trade and recording, and controlling of access to some goods which was standing behind that trade. Presumably it was not so much a full-bureaucracy but a set of obligations for a certain group of people.<br>From the Naqada IIC and Naqada IID existence of an administrative apparatus is well represented in the works of Andelkovic (2004) and Hendrickx (2002).§REF§Andelković, B. 2004. \"Paramets of Statehood in Predynastic Egypt\". [in:] Hendrickx,S., Adams B. et al. [ed.]. Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference \"Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,\" Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Leuven:Peters Publishers. pg: 1048.§REF§§REF§Honoré, E. 2007. \"Earliest Cylinder-Seal Glyptic in Egypt: From Greater Mesopotamia to Naqada\". paper from The International Conference in Naqada and Qus region’s heritage. Naqada. pg: 39,43.§REF§<br>However there is currently are only indirect sources of evidence. We can name “artifacts of administration”§REF§Andelković, B. 2004. \"Paramets of Statehood in Predynastic Egypt\". [in:] Hendrickx,S., Adams B. et al. [ed.]. Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference \"Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,\" Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Leuven:Peters Publishers. pg: 1048.§REF§ such as cylinder and stamp seals, seal impressions, labels, etc.<br>Altogether, those artifacts and architecture indicate the beginning of bureaucracy apparatus on the quite developed if not centralized level. Not all scientists, however, agree that existence of full-time, centralized bureaucracy is without any doubt. They rather talk about a “simple form of administration.”§REF§Wengrow, D. 2006. The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformation of North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg:264.§REF§." }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": -3400, "year_to": -3300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "absent<br>Naqada I-IIB<br>Naqada IIC-III<br>disputed_present_absent<br>Trade and recording<br>Probably the earliest evidence of bureaucratic processes can be observed in relation to trade and recording, and controlling of access to some goods which was standing behind that trade. Presumably it was not so much a full-bureaucracy but a set of obligations for a certain group of people.<br>From the Naqada IIC and Naqada IID existence of an administrative apparatus is well represented in the works of Andelkovic (2004) and Hendrickx (2002).§REF§Andelković, B. 2004. \"Paramets of Statehood in Predynastic Egypt\". [in:] Hendrickx,S., Adams B. et al. [ed.]. Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference \"Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,\" Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Leuven:Peters Publishers. pg: 1048.§REF§§REF§Honoré, E. 2007. \"Earliest Cylinder-Seal Glyptic in Egypt: From Greater Mesopotamia to Naqada\". paper from The International Conference in Naqada and Qus region’s heritage. Naqada. pg: 39,43.§REF§<br>However there is currently are only indirect sources of evidence. We can name “artifacts of administration”§REF§Andelković, B. 2004. \"Paramets of Statehood in Predynastic Egypt\". [in:] Hendrickx,S., Adams B. et al. [ed.]. Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference \"Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,\" Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Leuven:Peters Publishers. pg: 1048.§REF§ such as cylinder and stamp seals, seal impressions, labels, etc.<br>Altogether, those artifacts and architecture indicate the beginning of bureaucracy apparatus on the quite developed if not centralized level. Not all scientists, however, agree that existence of full-time, centralized bureaucracy is without any doubt. They rather talk about a “simple form of administration.”§REF§Wengrow, D. 2006. The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformation of North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg:264.§REF§." }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Scribes? §REF§(Bard 2000, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Several major administrative departments, e.g. treasury, granaries, and other public works, overseen by vizier.§REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication. April 2020. Email)§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Several major administrative departments, e.g. treasury, granaries, and other public works, overseen by vizier.§REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication. April 2020. Email)§REF§" } ] }