Full Time Bureaucrat List
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{ "count": 493, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Likely present in Teotihuacan, unknown before.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full time bureaucrats are known by Teotihuacan (ca. 250-550 CE). Evidence more secure from the Aztec Period (1450-1521) than in previous periods. §REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full time bureaucrats are known by Teotihuacan (ca. 250-550 CE). The information for this code is based primarily on art and are less secure than what we know from the Aztec Period (1450-1521). §REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Archaeological evidence suggests a ranked society with only part-time specialization in burgeoning sociopolitical, religious, and/or military institutional roles.§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Paul Tolstoy. (1989) \"Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico\", In <i>Regional Perspectives on the Olmec</i>, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Likely present in Teotihuacan, unknown before.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Archaeological evidence suggests a ranked society with only part-time specialization in burgeoning sociopolitical, religious, and/or military institutional roles.§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Paul Tolstoy. (1989) \"Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico\", In <i>Regional Perspectives on the Olmec</i>, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Likely present in Teotihuacan, unknown before.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Likely present in Teotihuacan, unknown before.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full time bureaucrats are known by Teotihuacan (ca. 250-550 CE). The information for this code is based primarily on art and are less secure than what we know from the Aztec Period (1450-1521). §REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest there is evidence for full-time bureaucrats during this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Although there must have been organised activity (e.g. to construct the public buildings and defensive palisade at San José Mogote) sources do not suggest there is evidence for full-time bureaucrats.§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p88§REF§" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Although there must have been organised activity (e.g. to construct the public buildings and defensive palisade at San José Mogote) sources do not suggest there is evidence for full-time bureaucrats.§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p88§REF§" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full time bureaucrats are known by Teotihuacan (ca. 250-550 CE). The information for this code is based primarily on art and are less secure than what we know from the Aztec Period (1450-1521). §REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists 'There were several royal officials in the service of the crown and charged with the king’s business such as collecting taxes and administering justice. However, these were usually members of the local elite and at least equally concerned with their own business. This was quite common in the Middle Ages. The sheriffs could be considered full-time bureaucrats.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ The establishment of the office of jarl proved unpopular, leading to its discontinuation: 'During the first years following the establishment of the union conditions in Iceland remained quite unchanged. The godords were still in the hands of the leading chieftains. Gizur, who was to exercise the highest authority as jarl, was unpopular, and his power was very limited. Royal commissioners were sent to Iceland to exercise control with or without his consent, and and he had to share his nominal authority with the powerful Oddaverjar chieftains of southern Iceland, Hrafn Oddsson of the Borgarfjord district, and Orm Ormsson of eastern Iceland. The king regarded him with suspicion; the chieftains hated him because of his rank and title; opposition and difficulties confronted him everywhere. Even his own character and previous record rendered him unfit to maintain peace and order, which was his principal official duty. He was unable to see the need of any change in the general régime, and the last chapter of his stormy life formed a fitting close to the drama of bloody feuds in which he had played so conspicuous a part. Shortly after the meeting of the Althing of 1264, while visiting in southern Iceland, he was suddenly attacked by Thord Andrisson, the head of the Oddaverjar family. With great difficulty he escaped from his assailants, and after gathering an army of 750 men he cruelly ravged the Rangarvalla district, where the Oddaverjar chieftains were dwelling.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 211p§REF§ The crown appointed royal magistrates (valdsmadr): 'After Gizur's death no new jarl was appointed, and for a time there was no real head of Icelandic affairs. In 1267 Orm Ormsson and Thorvard Thorarinsson went to Norway, Hrafn Oddsson following in 1268. Both Hrafn and Orm seem to have aspired to succeed Gizur, but the king found it advisable not to elevate another chieftain to the rank of jarl, as the title had been very unpopular. After some delay, and probably with the advice of Sturla Thordsson, he gave both ranks as hirdmenn and placed them in charge of Icelandic affairs with no other title than that of valdsmadr, or royal magistrate. Hrafs was to govern the western and Orm the eastern districts. Hrafn assumed the duties of his office, but Orm was drowned shortly after his appointment, probably on the homeward voyage.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 213§REF§ The institutional reform that followed the initial phase of transition involved the creation of other new offices, such as that of lawman. Royal officials were to preside over the general assembly: 'Some of the most important parts of the code were, nevertheless, sanctioned already in 1271, as the thingfararbölkr, or constitution of the thing, the thegngildi, or laws governing the payment of fines to the king in cases of murder of freemen, and a part of the arfabölkr, or laws about inheritance. The remaining portions of the code received sanction in 1272 ad 1273. The introduction of this code wrought a fundamental change in the Icelandic constitution and jurisprudence. Norwegian law had been substituted for the old Icelandic code, the \"Grágás\"; the godords were abolished, so also the characteristic features of the Althing: the fjordungsdómar, the fimtardómr, and the office of lögsögumadr. The thing system was reorganized according to Norwegian pattern. The valdsmadr should choose a certain number of men from each thing district, 140 in all, to constitute the thing, and from these the lawman should select three from each thing district, in all-thirty-six, to sit in the lögrétta. Instead of the lögsögumadr there should be a lawman, after 1277 two lawmen, as in Norway. Royal officials and representatives of the crown should preside over the Althing and take part in its decisions.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 214§REF§ Sýslumenn were in charge of larger districts, and governors oversaw the political process on the island: 'The willingness of the king to grant privileges to the church hitherto denied reveals a growing indifference of the Norwegian government to the real welfare of Iceland. An administration by royal officials had been established as a result of the union. Two lawmen were appointed by the king, one for the southern and eastern, and one for the western and northern quarters; sýslumenn were appointed as administrative officials for larger districts, as in Norway, and hirdstjórar were placed as royal governors over the island. But Iceland was now treated so much like other dependencies that the chief interest of the government was to secure from its inhabitants revenues for the royal purse. Víseyrir, or taxes payable to the king, were levied upon the whole country, and became a definite income payable to the king's purse, like the taxes from the Norwegian colonies. This system of taxation gave rise to a royal monopoly on trade with the colonies which proved disastrous to their economic well-being, and hindered their progress. The royal officials usually asserted the authority of the government with stern harshness, and severe punishments for crimes were introduced. In some cases criminals were even buried alive; but law and order were but imperfectly maintained. Even the higher officials themselves would engage in quarrels which sometimes resembled the bloody feuds of earlier periods.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 239p§REF§ Gjerset also mentions the office of merkismadr, although its relationship to that of governor remains unclear in his description: 'These new codes wrought a fundamental change in the conception of positive law as well as in legal practice in Iceland. The old court procedures with its intricacies and formalities was replaced by the simpler Norwegian system. The king was ruler and lawgiver was regarded as the source of justice, and behind the laws now stood the royal authority, ready to execute the decrees of the courts even against the most powerful offenders. Violation of the law was no longer viewed as a private affair to be settled by the offender and the party injured, but as a crime for which the wrong-doer had to answer to the government. The fines to be paid and other punishments to be inflicted were still to be determined by twelve men according to ancient usage. The old punishment of banishment for serious offenses was retained, but fines payable to the king were instituted in numerous cases, and capital punishment was to be inflicted for grave crimes, like murder, robbery, rape, counterfeiting, forgery, and seduction. Other severe punishments were also established. [...] But care had been taken by the lawgiver to guard against hasty action and undue harshness in the treatment of wrong-doers. In a chapter about legal decisions he advises the judges to consider carefully truth, justice, patience and mercy, in order that their decisions not bear the marks of cruelty and hatred. [...] The first lawmen appointed under the new law were Stural Thordsson and Jon Einarsson. The first royal magistrates who received the title of sýslumadr were Hrafn Oddsson in western Iceland, and Thorvard Thorarinsson for the southern and eastern districts, and Asgrim Thorsteinsson in the south-western districts. Others may have been appointed, but their names are not known. In 1279 Hrafn Oddsson became royal merkismadr with authority over all Iceland, as already noted.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 215pp§REF§ Karlsson equally describes a system comprised of lawmen, district commissioners, and governors, with many Commonwealth institutions abolished or weakened: 'The Icelanders also received two new law codes during Magnus' reign. In 1271 the king sent to Iceland a new legal code known as Járnsída (Ironside), followed by another book which bears the name of its main author, Jón Einarsson, Jónsbók (Jón's Book). But, contrary to developments in Norway, this second revision led Iceland further from conformity with Norwegian law. Jónsbók was admittedly based largely on Norwegian law, but it was drawn up for Iceland alone, and it remained in force there for four to five centuries, while Norwegian law underwent many revisions. Jónsbók thus made Iceland a separate jurisdictional area under royal rule. Iceland's system of government was radically altered by Járnsída and Jónsbók. Alpingi continued to meet, but the Law Council, which had been a legislative body, became primarily a court of law. The four regional courts, the Fifth court and the spring assemblies were abolished; new officials, lögmenn (lawmen) and sýslumenn (district commissioners) presided over regional court proceedings as required. Iceland was also assigned its own administrative officials. Around 1300 a demand was first put forward at Alpingi that Icelanders of the old chieftain clans should be apointed royal representatives in Iceland. For centuries after this, most administrative offices were held by Icelanders. Only the office of governor (hirdstjóri), the supreme royal official in Iceland, was held by foreigners as often as Icelanders.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 18p§REF§" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In the Lucre Basin: \"La ubicación de Chokepukio es un indicativo tanto del poder político como del religioso, los cuales, como en el caso de los incas, eran inseparables.\" §REF§(McEwan et al 2005, 276)§REF§ The location of Choquepukio is indicative of both religious and political power, which, as in the case of the Incas, were inseparable.There is no evidence to suggest that the elites at Choquepukio specialised in bureaucracy or religion, it seems that they governed most matters in an unspecialised manner." }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"From the generation of the fifth Inka ruler until the period of imperial expansion, new elite terms appear in the chronicles of Sarmiento de Gamboa (1965 [1572 Chapters 17-29]) and Cabello Valboa (1951 [1586 Book 3, Chapters 13-14]). These include apu, thupa, and ylla. These titles appear to include bureaucratic or judicial appointments, lordship over conquered territory, and economic elite status, respectively.\" §REF§(Covey 2002, 349)§REF§" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Cuzco also appointed a centrally controlled set of inspectors (tokoyrikoq, “He Who Sees All”) who checked on affairs in the provinces. Diez de Betanzos (1996: 110-11) wrote that the sons of the ruler were charged with the inquiries. The highest-ranking official may have been the “Inspector General” of the conquered territories, a position that was sometimes filled by the emperor’s brother. The existence of these independent agents implies that the rulers evidently did not fully trust the provincial officials to conduct all affairs with the best interests of the Sapa Inca and the state in mind.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 358)§REF§\"Imperial overseers and specialized record keepers produced tribute levies, population counts, and assessments of provincial development potential\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 169)§REF§ Given-Wilson writes of the important role played by the 'curacas' who functioned below the governor ('toqrikok') appointed for each province. Day-to-day organization or labour and tribute and the administration of justice was entrusted to the curacas, with the toqrikoks acting as overseers or magistrates, who were themselves monitored by superior inspectors, usually members of the royal family. §REF§(Given-Wilson 2016: 96)§REF§ The most important bureaucratic tools for the Incas was the <i>quipu</i> (a number of strings or cords tied with various nots at certain points, each signifying a certain piece of information. Given-Wilson argues that a lack of alphabetic writing did not prevent the Inca Empire from running an extensive bureaucracy, it just altered its character and effect. §REF§(Given-Wilson 2016: 81-88) Given-Wilson, C. 2016. Bureaucracy without Alphabetic Writing: Governing the Inca Empire, c.1438-1532. in, Crooks, P and Parsons, T. (eds.) Empires and Bureaucracy in World History: From Late Antiquity to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>Alan Covey: I wouldn’t necessarily call them bureaucrats, although quipu specialists (quipucamayocs) might be the closest thing to non-noble functionaries with regular state duties. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The political system was informal and decentralized: 'The social system is characterized by flexibility in arrangements for group membership and for transmission of rights to land. A village normally contains more than one clan branch and consequently is not necessarily a landholding unit. Residents may have closer kinship ties to residents of other villages than with some of their coresidents. Nevertheless, common residence implies some community of interest and a degree of group solidarity that is reinforced by government policy, which recognizes villages rather than descent groups as functional entities. Marriages between members of different clan branches within the village also reinforce this solidarity, which is expressed in ways such as daily food gifts, cooperation in certain tasks, and joint ceremonial activities. On the average, a lineage comprises three households. Usually, several clans are represented in a village, with members of a single clan (clan branches) being scattered among a number of neighboring villages. Lineages are more localized in cha racter, frequently being confined to a single village and tending to occupy one section of it.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ 'Political organization incorporates no central authority or hereditary leadership. Instead, it is characterized by big-men(EMBO DAMBO) and an ascendancy of elders who have proved themselves equal to the task. Such men command the respect of the village, based upon observed qualities of generosity, diligence, wealth, ability to make wise decisions, and skill in arranging ceremonial activities. This status confers no sanctioning authority, however. The Orokaiva tribes, around twelve in number, are very loose units politically and recognize no single leader. The largest unit is the tribe, which has a common territory usually demarcated from neighboring tribal territories by a belt of uninhabited land.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ These local strongmen were recruited into the constabulary during the colonial period: 'Village Constables. The suppression by force which had marked the early contact phase gave way to a form of ‘indirect rule’ through the appointment of Village Constables. The earliest Village Constables were the strong, leading men who had confronted the Europeans as warriors. As time passed war leaders were no longer a feature of the society, but patrol reports indicate that by and large Village Constables were influential and effective in the maintenance of law and order. The position of Village Constables was an uncomfortable and interstitial one. They had the difficult task of attempting to juggle the interests of their relatives and exchange partners and of the Administration, so that both sides were reasonably happy most of the time. Between 1907 and 1914 the number of Village Constables in the Northern Division rose from fifty-four to eighty-three, indicating that this system of administration was satisfactory to the Australian authorities. The Village Constables were concerned with enforcing legislation which impinged upon many aspects of daily life: burial of the dead, upkeep of roads, construction of latrines, neatness of houses and so on. Failure to obey these regulations could lead to imprisonment.' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 38§REF§" }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The colonial administration initially struggled to extend its reach to the interior: 'Armed clashes and the threat of use of violence were, of course, not effective means of achieving pacification. Government, commerce and the missionaries all used gift-giving as a method of establishing some kind of modus vivendi with the local people. The missionaries were most likely to handle threatening situations by giving goods such as cloth, iron, tobacco, beads and mirrors. They lamented that their Christian message was taken by the people as secondary to their provision of medical aid and goods. The Administration also made some use of the giving of gifts as a placatory technique. MacGregor and Monckton used presents suspended on trees or left on paths to avert trouble. However, in riskier situations, government officers would not hesitate to use firearms (Cecil King 1934:13; Chignell 1911:6, 140, 226; Wetherell 1977:32, 159).' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 30§REF§ Village constables were installed as intermediaries: 'Village Constables. The suppression by force which had marked the early contact phase gave way to a form of ‘indirect rule’ through the appointment of Village Constables. The earliest Village Constables were the strong, leading men who had confronted the Europeans as warriors. As time passed war leaders were no longer a feature of the society, but patrol reports indicate that by and large Village Constables were influential and effective in the maintenance of law and order. The position of Village Constables was an uncomfortable and interstitial one. They had the difficult task of attempting to juggle the interests of their relatives and exchange partners and of the Administration, so that both sides were reasonably happy most of the time. Between 1907 and 1914 the number of Village Constables in the Northern Division rose from fifty-four to eighty-three, indicating that this system of administration was satisfactory to the Australian authorities. The Village Constables were concerned with enforcing legislation which impinged upon many aspects of daily life: burial of the dead, upkeep of roads, construction of latrines, neatness of houses and so on. Failure to obey these regulations could lead to imprisonment.' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 38§REF§ 'Patrol reports from 1915 to the 1920s note regular satisfactory reporting by the Village Constables despite variations in the standard of housing, village cleanliness and road maintenance. Occasionally police would have to deal with disobedience against the colonial authority. In some cases the non-compliance stemmed from confusion about changed regulations but at other times the people deliberately avoided their obligations to carry for the government. In 1918 the Koropatan Village Constable enquired if carrying was still to be compulsory. He was probably confused following rumours of new legislation on carrying conditions. In 1919 and 1924 men in the area ran away when requested to carry (Bowden, 423, 6550, G91; Baker, 3995, 6548, G91; Flint, 402, 6549, G91).' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 57§REF§ 'At the time of the eruption, a certain number of new roles had already become firmly established among Papuans: member of the Royal Papuan Constabulary, Village Constable, Mission Teacher, Medical Orderly, Clerk, Labourer. Post-war government policy aimed at greatly increasing the number and scope of these roles, both by [Page 56] instituting numerous training programmes for the development of skills hitherto unknown to Papuans, and by setting up organisations in which Papuans wield a limited amount of political and administrative responsibility. It suffices, for my present purpose, to enumerate modern roles, performed by Papuans, with which the people of Sivepe came into contact during the year of my field study.' §REF§Schwimmer, Eric G. 1969. “Cultural Consequences Of A Volcanic Eruption Experienced By The Mount Lamington Orokaiva”, 55§REF§ Government Councils later replaced ad hoc administration by individual officials: 'The Government, keen now to develop a prosperous and loyal colony for defence purposes, no longer used coercion in the establishment of cash crops. They strongly encouraged such activity, but in the context of individual plots as anything co-operative or communal smacked of communism (Schwimmer 1969:86). They promoted coffee and cocoa by promising large, individual returns. The new Local Government Councils became the agencies of the Administration to promote land-tenure conversion and the planting of coffee and Malayan rubber on the individual blocks created (Waddell & Krinks 1968:15; Healey 1961:490; Jinks 1968:31, 28; Griffin, Nelson & Firth 1979:123).' §REF§Newton, Janice 1982. “Feasting For Oil Palm”, 66§REF§ The code takes into account the presence of colonial administrators and the recruitment of native men into the military administration. [Janice Newton (pers. comm.): On p 25 of my monograph footnote 6, I claim that the first Resident magistrates and their assistants were ‘a motley group of adventurers varying greatly in their concept of humanity and their methods..... They were trained on the job. The Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea Melbourne University Press 1972, p50 has a detailed entry on the evolution of training under ASOPA (Australian School of Pacific Administration) After the Second World War’’ Patrol Officers and Administrators were trained in Mosman Sydney, with a general orientation course followed up by academic training and refresher courses, ‘ acknowledging that expatriates needed special skills to function effectively in non -European environments.’ Jonathan Ritchie (pers. comm.): Do you think they mean the training provided to patrol officers before or after the war? If after, then of course they were trained at ASOPA. Ian Campbell has written about this, I think, in JOURNAL OF Pacific History (The ASOPA Controversy: A Pivot of Australian Policy for Papua and New Guinea, 1945-49 Journal of Pacific History 08/2010; 35(1):83-99. DOI: 10.1080/713682830.]" }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with \"some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”§REF§Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with \"some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”§REF§Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No evidence has been found of state organisation at Mehrgarh. §REF§Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 6§REF§§REF§Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge§REF§<br>An urban community of thousands suggests Mehrgarh likely had some degree of hierarchy for dispute resolution, perhaps a chief or collective decision making body. Evidence of dispute exists in the changing use of communal storage. In the previous periods Mehrgarh residents had organized communal food storage facilities. In this period food storage was located in individual houses.§REF§Wright, R. P. (2010) The Ancient Indus: urbanism, economy and society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. p53§REF§ Why was this change necessary? The growth in size and population of Mehrgarh does not imply that communal organization decreased - which is what is immediately suggested by loss of communal granaries. Possibly a greater degree of communal organization now existed, that replaced communal granaries, in form of cooperation with a chief or collective decision making body. However we have no evidence of state organisation at Mehrgarh. §REF§Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 6§REF§§REF§Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge§REF§ At this stage such a formal organization, if it existed, might best be classed as emergent and without institutional architecture." }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The evidence is unclear. The Indo-Greeks were on a cultural frontier between Iranian and Indian core territories, but seem to have maintained a distinct and enduring identity. Whether this was extended to a full time bureaucracy is unclear but likely. The Seleucid Empire did have full time bureaucrats, and this system in the Greco-Bactrians also seems to have existed. It is therefore inferred that some element of this system was preserved. §REF§Mairs, Rachel. \"The Hellenistic Far East: From the Oikoumene to the Community.\" Shifting Social Imaginaries in the Hellenistic Period: Narratives, Practices, and Images (2012).§REF§ §REF§Rougemont, Georges. \"Hellenism in Central Asia and the North-West of the Indo-Pakistan Sub-Continent: The Epigraphic Evidence.\" Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 18, no. 1 (2012): 175-182.§REF§" }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Coningham, there is no evidence of centralized systems of government during this period. Attempts by scholars such as Maurizio Tosi to find evidence of differentiation and increasing complexity were not born out by the evidence. While recording systems are present, stamp seals and sealing, these appeared to be quite localized in terms of their production.§REF§Coningham pers. comm. interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017§REF§ The remains of terracotta and bronze/copper seals, and numerous impressions of them, \"...lead us to suppose that some form of commercial business was carried on in this part of the site [PK.C]\"§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard. p368§REF§; and processing remains suggest that there were craft specialists at Pirak.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (2000) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan, Pakistan) at the beginning of the Second Millennium BC. In, Lahiri, N. The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Permanent Black, Delhi., pp345-362.§REF§ There may therefore have been some form of bureaucracy, but this is not certain. Coded 'inferred absent' because this evidence does not seem strong enough to demonstrate that there were full-time bureaucrats." }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Archaeological evidence, mostly in the form of seals, suggests the existence of some kind of bureaucratic system through Pirak II and III, of one or two levels at least§REF§Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017)§REF§." }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Many inscribed materials, including seals, copper tablets, and stoneware bangles, hint at a well developed bureaucracy organized from this center.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008, 212) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§ The extensive system for the acquisition and distribution of raw materials also suggests some sort of city-based administrative apparatus." }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Many inscribed materials, including seals, copper tablets, and stoneware bangles, hint at a well developed bureaucracy organized from this center.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008, 212) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§ The extensive system for the acquisition and distribution of raw materials also suggests some sort of city-based administrative apparatus." }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists. Prior to Russian rule, Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a statist bureaucratic system. Until at least the 19th century, lineage councils were the primary administrative bodies: 'Kinship and politics were mixed in the hierarchical council system that guided AQA-USA, AIMAK, and DZHON. Yakut explanations of DZHON in the nineteenth century included concepts like \"people,\" \"community,\" or \"tribe,\" territorially defined. Councils were composed of ranked circles of elders, usually men, whose leaders, TOYONS, were called nobles by Russians. A lineage head was BIS-USA-TOYON; respected warriors and hunters were BATYR. Lineage councils decided major economic issues, interfamily disputes, and questions of blood revenge for violence committed against the group. AIMAK and DZHON councils were infrequent, dealing with issues of security, revenge, alliance, and, before Russian control, war. Through war, slaves were captured for service in the wealthiest TOYON households. Kin-based councils were rare by the nineteenth century and had little influence on twentieth-century politics.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ 'Key kin relations are based on a patrilineage (AQA-USA) that traces membership back nine generations. Within this, children born to a specific mother are distinguished as a group (YE-USA), and may form the basis for different households (KORGON). Historically, more distant kin were recognized on two levels, the AIMAK (or territorial NASLEG), with one to thirty lineages, and the DZHON (or territorial ULUS), composed of several AIMAK. These larger units were united by alliances, including for common defense, alliances, and by economic relations; these links were renewed at councils and festivals.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ 'Prophets' and other elders dominated most councils: 'According to tradition, the seseny played no minor role in assemblies in the past. The word sesen comes from the same root as the verb sesenibin - I advise, I think, I predict. Legend portrayes the seseny as white-haired, honored, experienced elders.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 736§REF§ 'This dignity was neither elective nor hereditary, but not every old man was considered to be a sesen. For this he had to have a special gift of prophecy - in other words: an acknowledged intellect, experience, and knowledge. In difficult moments the heroes of olongo frequently turn to such advice-giving, honored, light-eyed Old Men-Talkers.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 737§REF§ 'In the past we did not decide anything without sesen. (Namsk Ulus, 1888). I will note that in this testimony sesen is used in the sense of sorcerer. The sesen decided disputed questions on the basis of custom, and gave advice when the clan was undergoing hard times. At ysyakh, before the games and contests began, the sesen of each clan or clan union would look over their own wrestlers; and they would remove those who were not good enough, who had recently sinned with a woman, who did not restrain themselves sufficiently in eating and drinking, so that they would not bring shame to their own people. They found all this out by feeling the body of the wrestlers, and by looking into their eyes and face. (Namsk Ulus, 1891). In the Bayagantaysk Ulus, when I asked who had named the rivers, hills, and other natural features, they answered: It must be the sesen - the old, ancient men, who knew everything! (Bayagantaysk Ulus, 1885).' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 737§REF§ Sesens were often from the toen class: 'Since within the clan many sesen were at the same time toen, i.e., the representatives of separate groups, they wielded enormous influencein clan councils. Usually in legends they are simply called old men - ogonior.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 737§REF§ Clan unions and tribal units also held council: 'They wielded less importance in councils of clan unions: there the first place was held by the heads of the clans, bis' usa toeno.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 737§REF§ It seems that the Russian period was preceded by a period of heightened social stratification favouring the Toyons: 'At this period, however, the clan-tribal structure was already in a state of decomposition. The tribes and clans were headed by the military aristocracy-the toyons. These possessed large herds of cattle and employed the labor of slaves and dependent fellow clansmen on their farms; they were also the military leaders. Heading detachments of armed servants and junior fellow clansmen, the toyons raided each other’s territory, and frequently looted the farms of the free members of the community, seizing their cattle and destroying their economic independence. These toyon wars and raids were one of the factors which speeded up the decomposition of the clan commune. The ruined members of the commune were reduced to the status of “balyksyts” (poor people without cattle, or fishermen), or else became the indentured slaves of the toyons. Most of the slaves (kuluts or bokans) originated in this way.' §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts”, 270§REF§ The Russian administration later reinforced kin-based hierarchies and superimposed a supratribal structure onto the Yakut system (see next sheet): 'The system of tsarist administration was no different here from what existed in any other part of Northern Siberia. The Dolgans, Yakuts and Evenks had to pay the fur-tax as “natives” and formed “clans” headed by princelings, while the tundra peasants were forced to pay a poll tax, were formed into a “community” and headed by an elder. People living many hundreds of kilometers away from the nearest centers were economically dependent on the merchants who monopolized supplies to the region, bought up all the furs, and cruelly exploited the population.' §REF§Popov, A. A. 1964. “Dolgans”, 656§REF§" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The early invaders imposed tribute on the Sakha population after successful military expeditions: 'By 1620 a report had reached Tobolsk from the Mangaseya Cossacks of the Great (Lena) River and the Lena Yakut. In 1631 they descended by the Viliui River, a tributary of the Lena, to the Lena River and imposed tribute on the adjacent Yakut. In 1632 a party of Cossacks under the command of the Boyar’s son, Shakov, took tribute in sables from a clan of Viliui horse-breeding Yakut. The Viliui River farther up from its mouth was occupied by Tungus only. The northern boundary of the distribution of the Yakut at that time was the mouth of the Viliui. The whole Lena Valley from the mouth of the Viliui River to the south, at a distance of about 500 kilometers (or 710 miles) was occupied by Yakut. In their possession were also all the Lena islands of that region, rich in pasture lands. There is no definite information as to how far inland they penetrated at that period. We may admit, however, that the Yakut, being horse and cattle breeders, were hardly inclined to move into the dense forests far from the majority of their tribesmen, i.e., far from the Lena Valley. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the Yakut abode on the western banks of the Lena must have been the territory of the two present uluses of Yakutsk District, Namskij and Western Kangalassky. There, according to Yakut traditions, was the first place of refuge of their mythical forefather, the “Tatar” Elliei. From there a part of his nearest descendants could also have emigrated over the Lena islands to the eastern banks of the Lena River, where excellent pastures are as abundant as on the western banks.' §REF§Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut\", 220§REF§ 'We have previously noted (see p. 64) that the Yakut were subjugated by two different Cossack parties from Mangasey aand Yeniseisk. The Olekminsk fortress on the Lena River was erected in 1630 when only Tungus lived in the region. In 1637 a Cossack party, under the command of Busa, collected tribute in furs from the Yakut of the Yana River.' §REF§Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 220§REF§ The czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure: 'The system of tsarist administration was no different here from what existed in any other part of Northern Siberia. The Dolgans, Yakuts and Evenks had to pay the fur-tax as “natives” and formed “clans” headed by princelings, while the tundra peasants were forced to pay a poll tax, were formed into a “community” and headed by an elder. People living many hundreds of kilometers away from the nearest centers were economically dependent on the merchants who monopolized supplies to the region, bought up all the furs, and cruelly exploited the population.' §REF§Popov, A. A. 1964. “Dolgans”, 656§REF§ 'The committee of Cherkashennikov which worked in the Yakutsk Oblast was only a branch of this All-Siberian commission. On December 14, 1766, an ukaz was issued which called for deputies from all of Russia to form a committee for establishing a better administration, discussing various problems of internal policy, and, incidentally, to establish a new code for the natives of Siberia. The Yakut, who were listed as nomads, were excluded from the list of electors, but they sent their deputy anyway and he was allowed to join the committee by a special order of the Empress.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 784§REF§ 'The overall development of commodity relationships helped to speed up the development of agriculture and here and there ploughing was enforced by the administration.' §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts”, 254§REF§ 'No less significant changes occurred in the administrative organization of the Yakut country. In the seventeenth century Yakutsk was the center of a great independent country directly subordinate to Moscow, although for some specific questions it was dependent on the governors of Tobolsk. In the time of Peter the Great, Yakutsk entered into the newly organized Siberian Goubernyia (government) and with the division of the Siberian government into provinces was included in Irkutsk Province. In 1775 Irkutsk Province was organized into a government and the Yakut country formed one of the provinces of the new government. In 1783 the government was again reorganized into a vice-royalty composed of four provinces, one of which was Yakutsk Province. In 1797 the vice-royalty was abolished and the government restored. In [Page 225] 1805 under the Emperor Alexander I, the Yakut country was made a separate province dependent upon Irkutsk. In 1852 the Yakut country was given a separate governor. After the revolution in February, 1917, a commissar was appointed by the Provisional Government.' §REF§Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 224§REF§ Sieroszewski reports corruption and exploitation of the Sakha population by administrators: 'The government undertook to regulate the distribution of Yakut land, [Page 764] partly to cease the disorders which arose as a result of this a nd partly to as sure and regulate the taking of yassak, which was being gathered with unbelievable arbitrariness and accompanied by terrible ill use, was stolen, substituted for, and hidden, and they stole from the Great Tsars by putting far too little in the treasury and by undervaluing the yassak greatly, and they impoverished the yassak-paying people and robbed the taxes and injured them.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research\", 763§REF§ In addition to Russian officials, land-holding toyons also doubled as officials in their districts: 'The population was also divided into three or four classes: the toyon households belonged to the first class, and received a first-class plot, the middle households were usually assigned to the second class and the poorer people to the third and fourth classes, each receiving the corresponding clan plot. Thus, the system itself gave the toyons plots of land which were three or four times larger than those of the poorer people. It is true that in return for this the toyons had somewhat greater obligations, but the difference in their extent was extremely small. However, this inequality was by no means the only thing. The toyons actually possessed much more land, having seized it in a variety of different ways. For example, they had several plots, rather than just one, by registering them in the names of their children, workers and so on. It was also the custom to give officials (who were more often than not themselves toyons) additional plots of land, so-called [...] (from the Russian word “ukaz” [edict]), for which, incidentally, there was no payment. The influential toyons also obtained extra plots called ugayy (or kharyy). Furthermore, the toyons frequently enjoyed the right of possessing larger plots, sometimes through inheritance, cleared from the forest or formed at the site of a drained lake. The leasing of land was also common.' §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts\", 271§REF§" }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Including an Egyptianized professional class §REF§(Török 1997, 153)§REF§ and an official treasurer §REF§(Török 1997, 178)§REF§." }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": 661, "year_to": 685, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The administrative system was staffed by permanent officials. §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 36-38)§REF§ from the reign of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE) §REF§(Lapidus 2013, 80-90)§REF§. In Mu'awiya's reign, the caliph was surrounded by Arab chiefs." }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": 685, "year_to": 750, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The administrative system was staffed by permanent officials. §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 36-38)§REF§ from the reign of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE) §REF§(Lapidus 2013, 80-90)§REF§. In Mu'awiya's reign, the caliph was surrounded by Arab chiefs." }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The administration was divided into four main sections. The first looked after the palace and capital including collecting rice from the royal land, guarding the royal person, keeping the peace, running the royal household, and adjudicating disputes in the capital and the core kingdom (<i>ratchathani</i>). The second looked after military affairs, and managed relations with the outlying great cities and tributary states. The third carried out royal trade, oversaw the foreign communities, and looked after the main treasury. The fourth contained the Brahmans who care of ritual, astrology, and record keeping\" §REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, p. 15)§REF§." }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A form of bureaucracy had existed in Thailand since Ayutthayan times §REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, p. 15)§REF§. Thai bureaucracy was extensively reformed between the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century §REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, p. 96)§REF§. It seems reasonable to infer that, before the reforms, Rattanakosin bureaucracy resembled Ayutthayan bureaucracy. Specifically, \"[s]enior officials might also be awarded people and maybe land or its product. [...] Nobles [in charge of administration] were expected to live from these grants, and from whatever income they could make through their status and office--mostly by taking a percentage of revenues collected, or charging fees for judicial work\" §REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, p. 15)§REF§." }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "tj_sarasm", "long_name": "Sarazm", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Efficient civil service. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 12)§REF§ Saqaliba - their origin \"enigmatic\" and land \"unidentified\". Eunuchs used as courtiers and administrators. E.g. Jawdhar. Some Saqaiba were also used by preceding Ikhshids and owned privately. §REF§(Lev 1987, 339)§REF§<br><i>In Tunisia the caliph directly ruled without a vizier. The court administration was run by a vizier after the move to Egypt.</i> \"The Fatimids in North Africa had appointed no wazirs and the notion of delegating that level of authority to a subordinate seemed not to have existed.\"§REF§(Walker 2011, 104) Walker, Paul E. Responsibilities of Political Office in a Shi'i Caliphate. Afsaruddin, A. ed. 2011. Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns. Spinger.§REF§ The court was highly stratified§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 242) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ and according to traveller Nasir-i Khusraw (c1048 CE) employed 30,000 people§REF§(Raymond 2000, 52) Raymond, Andre. Wood, Willard. trans. 2000. Cairo. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.§REF§, an exaggerated figure which reflects the fact it was involved in more than managing the imam-caliph's harem and personal life, which was controlled by a \"hierarchical corps of eunuchs\".§REF§(Hamblin 2005, 749) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§ The court-based government had heads for military, treasury, chancery (domestic and foreign communications), religious and missionary activities, judiciary and an auditor (from 1011 CE).§REF§(Hamblin 2005, 748) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§ From the early 11th century a state armoury employed 3,000 craftsmen.§REF§(Lev 1987, 354) Lev, Y. 1987. Army, Regime, and Society in Fatimid Egypt, 358-487/968-1094. International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 19, No. 3, August, pp. 337-365.§REF§ \"Poets were employed by the state to fill the role of modern-day public relations agents\"§REF§(Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§ who were \"paid to present truth and lies in a palatable manner.\"§REF§(Hunsberger 2003, 169) Hunsberger, Alice C. 2003. Nasir Khusraw, the Ruby of Badakhshan: A Portrait of the Persian Poet, Traveller and Philosopher. I.B. Tauris.§REF§ <i>... At least from 1073 CE the executive became de facto held by the vizier who soon would operate from his own palace. The transition probably began in the regency of the imam-caliph al-Mustansir.</i> Badr al-Jamaili was \"a virtual dictator\" although \"his rank remained that of a wazir, and he was always theoretically subservient to the imam-caliph.\"§REF§(Walker 2006, 88) Walker, Paul E. The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i Under The Fatimids. Kramer, Gudrun. Schmidtke, Sabine. eds. 2006. Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. BRILL.§REF§ The son and successor to the famous vizier Badr al-Jamali after 1094 CE built the Palace of the Vizerate (Dar al-Wizara) which became \"the official residence of the vizirs until the end of the Fatimid caliphate\".§REF§(Raymond 2000, 53) Raymond, Andre. Wood, Willard. trans. 2000. Cairo. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"The Armenian wazir, Badr al-Jamali, is certainly one of the most famous of these and was the de facto ruler of the Fatimid state (1074-94) as wazir to the Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir (r. 1036-94).\" §REF§(Lindsay 2005, 74) Lindsay, James E. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis.§REF§ From vizier Badr al-Jamali \"Henceforth, with minor exceptions, real power in the Fatimid state remained in the hands of viziers who possessed military bases of power and acted independently, while the caliphs remained the nominal heads of state and as Ismaili imams also functioned as supreme leaders of the ismalil da'wa or religious organization. A distinguishing feature of the Fatimid vizierate during its final century is that several viziers were Christians, notably Armenians.\"§REF§(Daftary 2005, 744) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§ Badr al-Jamaili was \"a virtual dictator\" although \"his rank remained that of a wazir, and he was always theoretically subservient to the imam-caliph.\"§REF§(Walker 2006, 88) Walker, Paul E. The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i Under The Fatimids. Kramer, Gudrun. Schmidtke, Sabine. eds. 2006. Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. BRILL.§REF§ Badr's son al-Afdal was murdered in 1121 CE but he had \"exercised the same iron-fisted control over the government as had the father.\"§REF§(Walker 2006, 89) Walker, Paul E. The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i Under The Fatimids. Kramer, Gudrun. Schmidtke, Sabine. eds. 2006. Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. BRILL.§REF§ <i>In all periods the executive, whether or not it was effectively in the hands of the caliph or the vizier, also held legislative power. The executive exerted power through the court-government. After the Palace of the Vizerate was built the new complex presumably simply replaced the imam-caliph's palace complex as the seat of the government (or created a command centre for organizing it) but the equivalence of the executive and legislative always remained with the court-government. The Palace of the Vizerate may have been the closest the Fatimids came to a bureaucracy independent of a royal/caliphal court.</i>" }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Old Kingdom<br>Scribes§REF§Burney C. (2004) <i>Historical Dictionary of the Hittites</i>, Lanham: Scarecrow Press, pp. 242§REF§§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11§REF§. The assembly panku/tuliya.<br>\"Chief of the Scribes\", a powerful figure§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 67§REF§ - a professional official.<br>New Kingdom:The Hittite Empire was probably more developed than the Old Kingdom." }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Barjamovic G. 2011. <i>A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period</i>. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pg. 325-326§REF§" }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Preiser-Kapeller says present.§REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§<br>\"The council composed of professional officials was also preserved in the Byzantine state. This distinguishes it from the western states of the middle ages.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>\"The growth of a special city aristocracy, or city patriciate, resulted from a subsequent development, which enabled some of the provincial aristocracy, such as the Ducas, to get a foothold in the capital.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 182) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§" }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Preiser-Kapeller says present.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§ \"The council composed of professional officials was also preserved in the Byzantine state. This distinguishes it from the western states of the middle ages.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§" }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Preiser-Kapeller says present.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§ \"The council composed of professional officials was also preserved in the Byzantine state. This distinguishes it from the western states of the middle ages.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 170, "name": "tr_cappadocia_2", "long_name": "Late Cappadocia", "start_year": -330, "end_year": 16 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Cappadocian kings minted their own coins.§REF§Iossif, P. P and Lorber, C. C. (2010) Hypaithros: A Numismatic Contribution to the Military History of Cappadocia. Historia, Band 59/4, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart. p440§REF§ \"Cappadocia is another example of a kingdom which adopted Greek as the language of administration, and whose kings energetically sponsored cultural Hellenism (high literary culture, gymnasion culture; euergetism abroad), to gain acceptance in the international scene.\" §REF§(Ma, 2003, p188)§REF§" }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 158, "name": "tr_konya_eca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"For the eastern empire of the 6th century Procopius reports that the court at Constantinople employed 5500 scholares, in addition to the domestici and protectores. And Procopius does not mention the exceptores and srinarii that filled the officium of the praetorian prefect in Constantinople.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 49-50) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Old Kingdom<br>Scribes§REF§Burney C. (2004) <i>Historical Dictionary of the Hittites</i>, Lanham: Scarecrow Press, pp. 242§REF§§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11§REF§. The assembly panku/tuliya.<br>\"Chief of the Scribes\", a powerful figure§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 67§REF§ - a professional official.<br>New Kingdom:The Hittite Empire was probably more developed than the Old Kingdom." } ] }