Full Time Bureaucrat List
A viewset for viewing and editing Full Time Bureaucrats.
GET /api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 493, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘The Kamakura Bakufu used the services of educated, professional officials or bureaucrats to regularize administrative and judicial processes. The transference of power from aristocratic to military hands was gradual and did not eliminate rational procedures and precedent from government. At both the national and local levels, control was, within obvious limits, systematic. Insofar as possible, it was also consistent. Bureacratic elements were included in the Bakufu from the Kamakura through the Tokugawa era.’§REF§Mass, Jeffrey P., and William B. Hauser (eds). 1985.The Bakufu in Japanese History. Stanford University Press.p. 194.§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§<br>\"The Kofun period is commonly regarded as the state formation phase.\"§REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 26) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"it is difficult to see any evidence for a political unification of a large part of Japan as early as A.D. 369, or shortly thereafter. Yamao (1977) argues, on documentary grounds, that unification was not achieved until about A.D. 531.\" §REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.233-237§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " daimyo had bugyo, military administrators, who worked in non-fighting capacity. §REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'most warriors served the Tokugawa shogunate as administrators or bureaucrats, not as military retainers.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.137.§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” dates to the late fifth century CE.§REF§(Steenstrup 1996: 11) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7YDV5KGG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7YDV5KGG</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Karakhanids had the bureaucratic position of Vizier." }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Present in large numbers in the administration, the army and the diplomatic service, the Sogdians were also present as simple merchants.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 204)§REF§<br>\"In the kingdom of Gaochang (Turfan) during the first half of the 7th century, the Türks had functionaries responsible for the supervision and taxation of commerce.38\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 208)§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'In its heyday, the temple {Ta Prohm] was administered by 18 high priests and 2,740 officials. There were 2,202 assistants and 615 female dancers. In all, 12,640 are listed as serving the temple, of which perhaps 1,000-2,000 were entitled to live within its walls. 66,625 people from rural villages were assigned to supply the temple, which involved mosquito nets, fine cloth, rice, honey, molasses, millet, beans, butter, milt, salt and vegetables.'§REF§(Higham 2014b, p. 388)§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'In its heyday, the temple {Ta Prohm] was administered by 18 high priests and 2,740 officials. There were 2,202 assistants and 615 female dancers. In all, 12,640 are listed as serving the temple, of which perhaps 1,000-2,000 were entitled to live within its walls. 66,625 people from rural villages were assigned to supply the temple, which involved mosquito nets, fine cloth, rice, honey, molasses, millet, beans, butter, milt, salt and vegetables.'§REF§(Higham 2014b, p. 388)§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The best known was entered at Ishanapura [...], just east of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap) in Cambodia, where a dynasty of kings is recorded in inscriptions (Vickery 1998). These rulers progressively adopted the characteristics of fully-fledged states, with a central court, splendid temples, water-control measures, and a bureaucracy of office holders.'§REF§(Higham 2013, 586)§REF§ 'One more text which is relevant, and probably belongs in [H] though possibly south of it in [K]-the exact provenance is unknown-is k.155, by a technical official, dhanyakarapati, \"chief of the grain stocks\", and one of only eight or nine such specialized functions mentioned in the pre-Angkor corpus, [Footnote 143: There are seven inscriptions by, or referring to, such technical or administrative specialists. The others are K.133 [I], a \"chief ship pilot\", mahanauvaha, in K.140 [K] a \"master of all elephants,\" or \"vassal king\", samantagajapati; in K.765 [T] a mahanukrtavi-khyata, \"celebrated for his great following\"; in K725 three such titles or names of functions, samantanauvaha, \"chief of the naval forces\", mahasvaptai, \"great chief of horse\", sahasravargadhiptai, \"chief of a group of a thousand\"; in K726 yuddhapramukha, military officer; and the latest in date a certain mahavikrantakesari, a name meaning \"great bold lion\", probably indicating a military person, who is mentioned 4 times in K1029 [R].]'§REF§(Vickery 1998, 125)§REF§ 'From the middle of the first millennium C.E., more early historical states are known (for example, Chenla, Dvaravati, Champa, Kedah, and ̋rivijaya). These states exhibit a shared in- corporation of Indian legal, political, and reli- gious ideas and institutions, including the use of Sanskrit names by rulers, as seen in stone inscriptions (first in South Indian and then in indigenous scripts) and in the layout and styles of religious architecture and carvings.'§REF§(Bacus 2004, 619)§REF§ 'Jayavarman I was the great-grandson of Ishanavarman. His inscriptions indicate the tightening of central power and control over a considerable area, the creation of new titles and admin- istrators, and the availability of an army, the means of defense and destruction. A text described how King Jayavarman’s commands were obeyed by “innumerable vassal kings.” Jayavarman also strengthened the legal code: “Those who levy an annual tax, those who seize carts, boats, slaves, cattle, buffaloes, those who contest the king’s orders, will be punished.” New titles were accorded highly ranked retainers who fulfilled important posts in government. One lineage held the priestly position of hotar. Another functionary was a samantagajapadi, chief of the royal elephants, and a military leader; the dhanyakarapati would have controlled the grain stores. The king also appointed officials known as a mratan and pon to a sabha, or council of state. Another inscription prescribes the quantities of salt to be distributed by barge to various foundations and prohibits any tax on the ves- sels going up- or downriver. Thus Jayavarman I intensi- fied royal control over dependent fiefs begun by his great-grandfather, Ishanavarman. Thereafter this dynasty loses visibility, although the king’s daughter, Jayadevi, ruled from a center in the vicinity of ANGKOR.'§REF§(Higham 2004, 75)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"It is important to appreciate that the overlords were increasingly served by advisers versed in Indian statecraft.\" §REF§(Higham 1989, p. 248)§REF§ This may be more accurate toward the end of the Early Funan period.Inscription titles from stelae provide specific title for bureaucracy, like for example the one recorded in an inscription from Ta Prohm where there is a reference to an inspector of the royal property. §REF§(Higham 1989, p. 248)§REF§ They also refer to the title poñ, which refers to a district leader with administrative powers §REF§(Vickery 2003, p. 108)§REF§. The inscriptions, however, date no earlier than the 7th century CE." }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'A Sanskrit inscription of the sixth century from Prasat Pram Loven mentions that a prince of the line of Kaundinya, entrusted a sanctu- ary containing an image of Vishnu’s feet to his son Gunavarman, in a domain that he had “wrested from the swamp.” Another undated Sanskrit inscription from Nak Ta Dambang Dek (Ta Prohm, Bati) is Buddhist rather than Hindu and refers to Jayavarman and his son Rudravarman. The first two stanzas praise Buddha; the next two praise King Rudravarman; the fifth says that his father, King Jayavar- man, gave the office of inspector of royal goods to the son of a brahmin. The rest praise this functionary and his family and describe a foundation made by him during Rudravarman’s reign. George Co- edès, who studied the inscription, concluded that the inscription can- not refer to Jayavarman I, who reigned around 660, because the script style was older, slightly before 550. He therefore concluded that this Jayavarman must be the same king as Chinese sources mention in 514 (Jayavarman died, Rudravarman succeeded). Chinese texts showed that Buddhism flourished under Jayavarman I. The inscrip- tion, however, betrays no suggestion of Mahayana influence; thus the Palembang inscription of 684 is still the oldest to demonstrate the existence of Mahayanism in Southeast Asia.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 125)§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Secretaries and clerics educated at state-funded Muslim <i>madrassas</i>§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 48§REF§." }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§<br>'In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters - suggests a resistance to centralization.'§REF§(McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§<br>In Jenne-Jeno there is no evidence for a state bureaucracy, priesthood, military or a king§REF§(McIntosh, 31) McIntosh, Roderick J. Clustered Cities of the Middle Niger: Alternative Routes to Authority in Prehistory. in Anderson, David M. Rathbone, Richard. eds. 2000. Africa's Urban Past. James Currey Ltd. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " late 14th century government characterised by rules of powerful government officials and a \"puppet\" monarch. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 56)§REF§ We know that under the Songhai Askias the bureaucracy became very well developed but it is possible more rudimentary aspects of the following description preexisted under the earlier Empires. During the Songhai period, each high official was directly appointed by the king§REF§(Diop 1987, 108) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§, was given a \"distinctive uniform and insignia\" which were worn at royal audiences, and they sat together in a highly-formalised assembly.§REF§(Diop 1987, 78) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ For the Mali Empire specifically we have references to the following officials: the hari-farma managed fishing on the Niger river.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 43) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§ The sao-farma managed the forests.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 43)Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§ The babili-farma was minister of agriculture.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 43) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§ The khalissi-farma was minister of finance.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 43) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§ Reference for the later period Songhai state to prisons at Kanato, Kabara (near Timbuktu) and elsewhere§REF§(Diop 1987, 126) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ where there was widespread use of \"notarized documents\" such as for an inventory of goods belonging to a prison inmate.§REF§(Diop 1987, 127) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The chief of the village \"worked to maintain peace and was the authority in regard to all matters legal or moral, including land ownership, religion, and ceremonies.\"§REF§(Keil 2012, 108) Sarah Keil. Bambara. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Central government divided into ministries.§REF§(Cissoko 1984, 197) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO.§REF§<br>The king's top officials included a finance officer (katisi-farma) he had sub-officials.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 167) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§ There were many other offices in the Songhai government.§REF§(Diop 1987, 112) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§<br>Letter writing was common means of communication.§REF§(Diop 1987, 114) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Askia Mohammed had a secretary who could draw up written documents.§REF§(Diop 1987, 187) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"According to the Chinese chroniclers, there were 28 hereditary ranks or titles in the Turk political system, suggesting a formal bureaucracy but not an entirely centralized administration.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 225)§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In Persia \"the Mongols increasingly entrusted the day-to-day administration of government to Persian bureaucrats\" §REF§David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd ed. 2007), p.89.§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " R 2004, K+S 2006" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " present in Mongol Empire and Yuan but that is because they conquered territories where they would have been present. Difficult to infer that the Khalkhas also had full-time bureaucrats." }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"However, it would be incorrect to consider these innovations as evidence of the emergence among the Rouran of a bureaucratic organisation of administration resembling the Chinese one. Most likely, it was only an outward similarity with Chinese institutions, its main aim was the preservation of steppe traditions. This is evident from the chronicler's list of posts (chamberlain, etc.) that were related to the way of life of the ruler and his court rather than to record keeping and the administration of the central or regional institutions of power. Shunyu Tan, grandiloquently called a principal clerk, judging by the context, was the only official of his department, moreover, he also held the most important post of chamberlain.\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 163-164)§REF§ \"There are actually no data of any specialised functionaries (professional bureaucrats), who were present in almost every early state (Claessen-Skalnik 1978, p. 580). The sole exception is the above-mentioned Shunyu Tan who was appointed principal clerk by Anagui.\" §REF§(Kradin 1995, 165)§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"According to the Chinese chroniclers, there were 28 hereditary ranks or titles in the Turk political system, suggesting a formal bureaucracy but not an entirely centralized administration.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 225)§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great majority of the officials under the kaghan fulfilled both a military and civil function. This is not surprising, since the Uighurs were a warlike people among whom administrators were, on the whole, expected to be competent soldiers.\"§REF§(Mackerras 1990, 323)§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"This imperial confederation of nomads was not a state. There is no information of the existence of government, functionaries and other government institutions. It was a supercomplex chiefdom.\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 200)§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists not considered present during the later Xiongnu Imperial Confederation." }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The sources provide evidence of administrative officials in the Xiongnu Empire but it is unclear whether they were full-time professionals. \"The Xiongnu had many titles for the rulers of the segments within the empire confederation. In addition, there were special functionaries (“gudu hou”). The Chinese chronicles report that “the gudu marquises assist the chanyu in the administration of the nation” (Watson 1961a, 163-164). In a special work Pritsak (1954, 196-199) assorts their place in the Xiongnu political system. Nonetheless, the number of these functionaries was very limited.\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 95)§REF§ 'The central government, which the Shanyu/Chanyu headed, was in practice run by elite officials called the Gudu marquesses, who had the responsibility of managing relations between the central government and provincial governments within the Xiongnu empire'.§REF§(Kim 2017, 18) Kim, Hyun Jin. 2017. “The Political Organization of Steppe Empires and Their Contribution to Eurasian Interconnectivity: The Case of the Huns and Their Impact on the Frankish West.” In Eurasian Empires in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages: Contact and Exchange between the Graeco-Roman World, Inner Asia and China, edited by Hyun Jin Kim, Frederik Juliaan Vervaet, and Selim Ferruh Adalı, 13-33. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3DA847TK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3DA847TK</a>.§REF§ Not a full-time occupation? \"The economic, judicial, cultic, fiscal, and military functions were considered to be responsibilities of chiefs and elders (Taskin 1973, 9-11).\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 89)§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The sources provide evidence of administrative officials in the Xiongnu Empire but they probably were not full-time specialists. \"The Xiongnu had many titles for the rulers of the segments within the empire confederation. In addition, there were special functionaries (“gudu hou”). The Chinese chronicles report that “the gudu marquises assist the chanyu in the administration of the nation” (Watson 1961a, 163-164). In a special work Pritsak (1954, 196-199) assorts their place in the Xiongnu political system. Nonetheless, the number of these functionaries was very limited.\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 95)§REF§ 'The central government, which the Shanyu/Chanyu headed, was in practice run by elite officials called the Gudu marquesses, who had the responsibility of managing relations between the central government and provincial governments within the Xiongnu empire'.§REF§(Kim 2017, 18) Kim, Hyun Jin. 2017. “The Political Organization of Steppe Empires and Their Contribution to Eurasian Interconnectivity: The Case of the Huns and Their Impact on the Frankish West.” In Eurasian Empires in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages: Contact and Exchange between the Graeco-Roman World, Inner Asia and China, edited by Hyun Jin Kim, Frederik Juliaan Vervaet, and Selim Ferruh Adalı, 13-33. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3DA847TK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3DA847TK</a>.§REF§ Not a full-time occupation? \"The economic, judicial, cultic, fiscal, and military functions were considered to be responsibilities of chiefs and elders (Taskin 1973, 9-11).\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 89)§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Local officials were responsible for keeping their people in line and reporting external or internal disorder. The commoner officials were required to assemble periodically at the palace-yurt (örgöö) of their noyon, and otog elders had to assemble the demchis; failure to appear was subject to a fine. Government was maintained almost entirely by in-kind contributions. The commoners were required to give food, mounts, and other necessary supplies to government messengers and “feed” their own nobles, tabunangs, and the high officials.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 421-422)§REF§<br>This quote seems to indicate that high officials in the government were supported through tribute and had no other occupation. Besides, the presence of tax officials reinforces the probability that there were full-time bureaucrats. AD.<br>\"According to Liang Fen, Galdan also established a rudimentary taxation system by delegating a traveling inspector to exact payments of horses, oxen, and sheep from fron- tier tribes, and to keep careful track of income and expenses. This man, who “represented Galdan’s eyes and ears . . . gathered up people and goods in his net.”7\" §REF§(Perdue 2005, 305)§REF§<br>\"Galdan-Tseren reorganized the Zünghar principality, nominally numbering 200,000 households, into directly ruled otogs and appanages, or anggis. His directly subject households, nomadizing in the Ili valley, numbered 24 otogs administered by 54 albachi zaisang (tax officials), with a nominal strength of 87,300 households. These were his personal Choros subjects, captured Siberian and Mongolian peoples, and functional units such as the 4,000 Kötöchi-Nar (equerries), 1,000 Buuchin (musketeers), 5,000 Uruud (craftsmen), and 2,000 ZAKHACHINs (borderers). The appanages of the great nobles, which surrounded the Ili center, were arranged into 21 anggis, specified as six Choros, one Khoshud, two Torghud, eight Khoid, and (presumably) four Dörböd. The anggis did not pay regular taxes to the ruler.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 622)§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "In West Africa no centralised professional bureaucracy likely existed before the reign of Askia Mohammed of the Songhai Empire.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§ Government officials existed before this time but they may not have been professional.<br>In Kumbi-Saleh there were \"mosques and religious functionaries including imams, muezzins, Quran reciters, and scholars. The Muslims provided the ruler with interpreters and officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§ Imams could not be full-time bureaucrats.<br>Al-Bakri described what might be an incipient bureaucratic center: \"The king has a palace and a number of domed dwellings all surrounded with an enclosure like a city wall. ... The king's interpreters, the official in charge of his treasury and the majority of his ministers are Muslims.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15)§REF§<br>First explicit mention of \"central bureaucracy\" Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) who \"supported by Mande clans ... created a ... central bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "In West Africa no centralised professional bureaucracy likely existed before the reign of Askia Mohammed of the Songhai Empire.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§ Government officials existed before this time but they may not have been professional.<br>In Kumbi-Saleh there were \"mosques and religious functionaries including imams, muezzins, Quran reciters, and scholars. The Muslims provided the ruler with interpreters and officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§ Imams could not be full-time bureaucrats.<br>Al-Bakri described what might be an incipient bureaucratic center: \"The king has a palace and a number of domed dwellings all surrounded with an enclosure like a city wall. ... The king's interpreters, the official in charge of his treasury and the majority of his ministers are Muslims.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15)§REF§<br>First explicit mention of \"central bureaucracy\" Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) who \"supported by Mande clans ... created a ... central bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "In Kumbi-Saleh there were \"mosques and religious functionaries including imams, muezzins, Quran reciters, and scholars. The Muslims provided the ruler with interpreters and officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§ Imams or religious officials would not be full-time.<br>Al-Bakri described what might be an incipient bureaucratic center: \"The king has a palace and a number of domed dwellings all surrounded with an enclosure like a city wall. ... The king's interpreters, the official in charge of his treasury and the majority of his ministers are Muslims.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15)§REF§<br>First explicit mention of \"central bureaucracy\" Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) who \"supported by Mande clans ... created a ... central bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§ However, in the Mali Empire late 14th century government was characterised by rule of powerful government officials and a \"puppet\" monarch, which implies the presence of a full-time bureaucrats in the late 14th century. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 56)§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "In Kumbi-Saleh there were \"mosques and religious functionaries including imams, muezzins, Quran reciters, and scholars. The Muslims provided the ruler with interpreters and officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§ Imams or religious officials would not be full-time.<br>Al-Bakri described what might be an incipient bureaucratic center: \"The king has a palace and a number of domed dwellings all surrounded with an enclosure like a city wall. ... The king's interpreters, the official in charge of his treasury and the majority of his ministers are Muslims.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15)§REF§<br>First explicit mention of \"central bureaucracy\" Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) who \"supported by Mande clans ... created a ... central bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§ However, in the Mali Empire late 14th century government was characterised by rule of powerful government officials and a \"puppet\" monarch, which implies the presence of a full-time bureaucrats in the late 14th century. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 56)§REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest there is evidence for full-time bureaucracy during this period. A degree of complex organisation is inferred to have existed, based on the construction of Monte Alban, but no written records or specialised administrative buildings have been identified.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The monumental construction at Monte Alban has been seen as a sign of a high degree of administrative centralization.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ However, we lack adequate information about administrative structures at Monte Albán to be able to discern whether full-time specialist bureaucrats (i.e. not just chiefs or generals with administrative duties) were present.§REF§Gary Feinman, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The monumental construction at Monte Alban has been seen as a sign of a high degree of administrative centralization.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ However, we lack adequate information about administrative structures at Monte Albán to be able to discern whether full-time specialist bureaucrats (i.e. not just chiefs or generals with administrative duties) were present.§REF§Gary Feinman, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The monumental construction at Monte Alban has been seen as a sign of a high degree of administrative centralization.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ However, we lack adequate information about administrative structures at Monte Albán to be able to discern whether full-time specialist bureaucrats (i.e. not just chiefs or generals with administrative duties) were present.§REF§Gary Feinman, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Sixteenth-century Spanish written records refer to bureaucratic positions, such as the positions of tribute collector, ward boss and golaba, or “lord’s solicitor” who collected goods and services from surrounding villages, and so bureaucratic positions may have been present in these earlier phases.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376§REF§§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p217§REF§ However, we lack adequate information about administrative structures at Monte Albán to be able to discern whether full-time specialist bureaucrats (i.e. not just chiefs or generals with administrative duties) were present.§REF§Gary Feinman, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Spanish written records refer to bureaucratic positions, such as the positions of tribute collector, ward boss and golaba, or “lord’s solicitor” who collected goods and services from surrounding villages.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376§REF§§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p217§REF§ However, the evidence we have does not shed any light on whether these were full-time specialists.§REF§Gary Feinman, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§ Charles Spencer commented: 'In the Zapotec case, we have a few 16th-century sources, but they are far from ideal in terms of providing details about Zapotec governance in the 16th century, let alone the time of the early Monte Alban state (ca. 300 B.C. through A.D. 800). Flannery and Marcus have done a fine job of pulling together what can be gleaned from the 16th century sources (e.g., Flannery 1983 \"The Legacy of the Early Urban Period: An Ethnohistoric Approach\" in The Cloud People). Taking a broad view of administration [...] one can identify several governing specialists in the 16th sources, for example: coquitao (king), coquihualao (prince), xoana (minor noble), golaba (lord's solicitor or barrio head), uija-tao (high priest), bigaña (lower-ranking priests). There may have been even more specialists in the 16th century, but [...] the ethnohistoric sources don't provide adequate documentation'.§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§" } ] }