Full Time Bureaucrat List
A viewset for viewing and editing Full Time Bureaucrats.
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{ "count": 493, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Overseers of granaries and treasury. §REF§(Strudwick 1985, 337)§REF§ Other administrative departments included public works.§REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Overseers of granaries and treasury. §REF§(Strudwick 1985, 337)§REF§. Other administrative departments included public works.§REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"the fledgling Theban state created a centralized administrative system\"§REF§(Lloyd 2010, 84)§REF§" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " From about 591 BCE: \"specialized departments composed of financial, tax, logistics, and other specialists assigned to monitor local administrations\".§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1002) Agut-Labordere, Damien. \"The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power.\" in Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno ed. 2013. Ancient Egyptian Administration. BRILL.§REF§ Before this time the bureaucracy less specialised and titles of powerful individuals did not adequately (for historians) express their roles. e.g. Leader of the Fleet.§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1002) Agut-Labordere, Damien. \"The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power.\" in Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno ed. 2013. Ancient Egyptian Administration. BRILL.§REF§ However these generalists were full-time? or had scribes who were full-time." }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Administrators of the royal court. §REF§(Grajetzki 2010)§REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Founder of the Tulunid Dynasty, Ibn Tulunid, introduced administrative reforms. §REF§(Esposito 2004, 130) Esposito, J. 2004. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press.)§REF§" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Officials " }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Government officials, scribes, coiners.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Leading chiefs as well as civil servants managed the administration.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Chuukese lineages and chiefs were not organized bureaucratically. 'A district chiefship was divided between the oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally. The latter was executive chief, or \"chief of talk,\" and the former symbolic chief, or \"chief of food.\" Food presentations were made to the symbolic chief. Sometimes the symbolic and executive functions fell to the same individual; often they did not. The symbolic chief was surrounded by his lineage brothers and by his sons, who acted as his agents. These followers and his sisters and daughters were of chiefly rank, distinct from commoners. Through conquest, a lineage might gain the chiefship in more than one district and establish a junior branch as the chiefly lineage in the conquered district. The now subordinate district rendered food presentations to the superordinate one. Most districts were linked in two rival leagues based on competing schools of magic and ritual relating to war, politics, and rhetoric. A chief's authority derived from two things. His lineage's ownership of the district's space entitled him to presentations of first fruits at stated times of the year. More importantly, it gave him authority over the conservation and use of the district's food resources. His authority also derived from his connection with the sky world, its gods, and their superhuman power to accomplish purposes. There was, therefore, a degree of sacredness associated with chiefs.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In the colonial period, some islanders were recruited by the colonial administration as petty officials: 'The purpose of the schools for natives, judging from both reported policies and the Japanese school regulations was to civilize the natives and make them into loyal and economically useful citizens of the Japanese empire. While there was theoretically no limit to the higher education which the native child with sufficient ability and financial support might obtain, in actual fact only a minority of Trukese children attended the fourth and fifth grades, and only a minority of those completing fifth grade obtained further education at the vocational schools. Apparently no Trukese native obtained any academic education beyond fifth grade, except incidentally along with vocational training. The system was geared in effect to produce a supply of general laborers and domestic servants who understood the Japanese language, plus a small elite of skilled laborers and petty officials.' §REF§Fischer, John L. 1961. “Japanese Schools For The Natives Of Truk, Caroline Islands”, 84§REF§ It is unclear from this description whether native officals were employed on a part-time or full-time basis. We have assumed full-time for the time being." }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information found in sources so far." }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "50,000 state officials in 1661 CE. §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 2)§REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "State office holders: 5,000: 1515 CE; 46,000: 1665 CE; 51,000: c1770 CE. §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 470)§REF§ Is the first number correct? \"There were five million office-holders in around 1515\". No, it should read \"five thousand\" (Pierre Chaunu estimate)." }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from apparent change in 1250: Professional administration in Paris from 1250 CE. §REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333)§REF§<br>Before this time there were permanent officials within the king's household, probably sourced from the aristocracy." }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Professional administration in Paris from 1250 CE. \"§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333)§REF§<br>Professional maitres des comptes in auditing department. §REF§(Spufford 2006, 68)§REF§<br>secretaries, or greffiers, of the Parlement de Paris. Records of its decisions, called the Olim, \"and from the 14th century and thereafter they produced series of records of most of the<br>Parlement’s work.\"§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333)§REF§<br>\"By the reign of Philiph II (1180-1223), the Templars were effectively the French royal treasury. During the course of his reign, they increased the revenues from royal estates by 120 per cent, and were heavily involved in Philip's restructuring of Capetian finances. During the thirteenth century, the Templar treasurer in Paris was always a man selected by the king, and the treasurers became trusted advisers to Philip and his successors. ... That the Templars proved themselves to be so successful as bankers is due in no large part to the meticulousness of their records, and their objectivity in dealing with clients. Records survive from the Paris Temple for the period 12 March 1295 to 4 July the following year, and they give a clear indication of how busy the Paris Temple was in its role as banker. ... There were more than 60 active accounts at the Paris Temple during this period, with the account holders being a mixture of royalty, clergy, important nobles and Templar officials.\"§REF§(Martin 2011) Sean Martin. 2011. The Knights Templar. Oldcastle Books.§REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory.§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>.§REF§ One official position that first appeared in this period was the <i>missus dominicus</i> (king's representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king's decrees.§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>.§REF§ However, it is not clear whether this or other administrative positions were full-time." }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Code for Early Carolingian<br>The number of full time bureaucrats was however very small (maximum a 1000) and most of them were based at Aachen and a smaller number at the other levels of government." }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "6th century Merovingian Kingdom \"de facto local aristocrats, a service aristocracy (defined by its tenure of posts within the administration) and an hereditary nobility.\" §REF§(Halsall 2003, 21)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "6th century Merovingian Kingdom \"de facto local aristocrats, a service aristocracy (defined by its tenure of posts within the administration) and an hereditary nobility.\" §REF§(Halsall 2003, 21)§REF§" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "6th century Merovingian Kingdom \"de facto local aristocrats, a service aristocracy (defined by its tenure of posts within the administration) and an hereditary nobility.\" §REF§(Halsall 2003, 21)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Professional maitres des comptes in auditing department.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 68)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Provincial governor \"paid fixed emoluments like other office-holders.\"§REF§(Potter 1995, 118)§REF§<br>Roland Mousnier estimated 1515 CE at least 4,041 executive office-holders. Pierre Chaunu estimated 5,000, and with clercs and commis the \"administrative technostructure\" would be 7,000-8,000, making 1 bureaucrat per 57.5 sq km, or 1 per 2,000 people. §REF§(Potter 1995, 123)§REF§<br>Offices could be bought and sold because they were thought of as property and thus profit-making. Sold by the state to raise money. For a price the office could be made hereditary (and thus withdrawn from market). Frequently new offices were created to raise money." }, { "id": 84, "polity": null, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " British Civil Service, colonial bureaucracies e.g. Indian Civil Service. In Britain, expanding system of full-time salaried bureaucrats; in India, a system of (mostly non-native) salaried officials known as the Indian Civil Service, introduced in 1858." }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists The Omanhene was chosen from royal lineages and assisted by multiple officials: 'The several Akan peoples each consist of a single kingdom ruled by a king, OMANHENE (lit. \"state-chief\"). The king comes from whatever clan provides the royal line in a particular kingdom, and is chosen in rotation from one of this clan's kingly lineages (there are often other, non-kingly, lineages within a royal clan). He is elected by various officials, of which the most important is the OHEMMAA (or similar terms; lit. \"woman-chief\" and usually translated in the literature as \"queen-mother\") although she is typically not the actual mother but a senior woman of the clan, who \"knows\" genealogy and may have her own court and be assisted by various officials. Criteria for the selection of a king include assumed competence, general personality, and the fact that kingly lines usually rotate in providing the king. Once selected, the king is \"enstooled\"-that is, seated upon the stool of kingship. His former status is annulled symbolically, his debts and lawsuits are settled, his clothing and personal possessions st ored; he is then symbolically reborn and given the identity of one of his forebears. He assumes the royal name and title borne by that previous ruler. A king has his palace, in which work members of his court. Details vary considerably, but, in general, the royal officials comprise several categories: those from the royal clan itself; those representing the remainder of the people; and ritual officials, drummers, and others who were considered the \"children\" of the king, being recruited from many sources, including royal slaves, and often observing patrilineal descent. The king is a sacred person. He may not be observed eating or drinking and may not be heard to speak nor be spoken to publicly (speaking only through a spokesman or \"linguist,\" OKYEAME). He is covered from the sky by a royal umbrella, avoids contact with the earth by wearing royal sandals, and wears insignia of gold and elaborate and beautiful cloth of royal design. In the past, an Akan king held power over the life and death of his subjects and slaves. These powers were eroded during colonial rule, but today an Akan king remains extremely powerful, representing his people both politically an d ritually and acting as a focus for the identity of his kingdom. By far the most powerful is the king of Ashanti, who has the largest of all the Akan kingdoms, the Asantehene at Kumasi.' §REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan§REF§ Councillors aided the Omanhene in judicial matters, but there was no formalized system of examination or merit promotion for them: 'But as a man attracts the favourable attention of the observant ones of his tribe, as he more and more impresses the people by his ability in their public gatherings, by the soundness of his opinion, by the depth of his knowledge of the customary laws and traditions, by his skill in public debate, by his keen interest in public affairs, by his bravery or warlike qualities, or by some other qualifications, he acquires public influence, and is accepted, in a greater or less degree, as a public man, representative of a portion of the community. Success in trade, or other personal attributes, are likewise qualifications for this post. The position of such a person is definitely confirmed when the head ruler with his council invites him to be a councillor. Attending an Omanhene or Ohene are always to be found some councillors, who assist him in hearing and determining lawsuits and administering justice. In the town of the [Page 11] Omanhene these men perform many of the duties of officers, who in European countries are known as ministers of state. It is worthy of note that, as a general rule, a Tufuhene is not a member of the Council (Begwa) of the Ohene or Omanhene.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 10p§REF§ Much public authority was attached to stools: 'Before proceeding further, it is necessary to explain the origin of stools, whether family or public. Where the head of a family has more than one stool, he may give one to a member of the family on appointing him the Penin of a junior branch of the large family. The person so appointed thereby acquires possession of all the goods, chattels, and lands appurtenant to that stool. His own property becomes stool property, and is merged in whatever is given him. The children of the last stoolholder call him father, and the widows become his wives; each woman can, however, obtain her freedom on repayment of the Consawment money, that is, dowry. But a new stool is created in this wise: when the family of a man of wealth or influence on his death so will, they create a family stool which is named after the deceased. For this purpose the favourite chair of the deceased, generally a small one, which was in constant use by him, is cleaned, then rubbed all over with the blood of sheep, and finally smeared with a mixture of soot and eggs. The stool is afterwards wrapped in some skin and safely kept. During this consecration, libation is made and prayers are freely offered for the prosperity of the family, and that its members may, in time to come, attain greater influence and prominence. These stools are added to from time to time, but count is made of only the prominent ones. Too often the name of the original founder of the family is dropped for that of one of his successors of greater eminence. When an old stool is so decayed that it ought to be destroyed, it is burnt, and the ashes thereof are made into a paste with oil, blood, eggs, and other substances. The paste is then daubed on a new stool, which is [Page 13] consecrated as a family stool and named after the old one. When an old stool is lost a new one is specially made and consecrated.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. \"Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asant, And Other Akan Tribes of West Africe Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration of Early English Voyages, And A Stody Of The Rise of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.\", 12p§REF§ We follow Arhin Kwame's characterization of this system as 'patrimonial' rather than 'bureaucratic' (see the Ashanti Period sheet)." }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists The time period in question was characterized by a trend towards greater bureaucratization and functional specialization: 'State organisation became extremely complex in the Kumasi state because at the close of the 17th century it became the capital of the union of Asante states and, in the course of the following century, the seat of an empire which was roughly coterminous with the boundaries of modern Ghana and southeastern Ivory Coast (Wilks 1975: 374-86). The expansion of the state made necessary administrative reforms within Kumasi itself and for the maintenance of effective relations between the Asantehene, the head of the Asante Union and, by consent, also the head of the Kumasi state, and the heads of the conquered territories. The palace administration ( gyase) was expanded with appointive headships of innumerable functional units or palace associations ( afekuo, sing. fekuo) (Rattray 1929: 81-92; Wilks 1967: 214-28; Hagan 1971). The memberships of the palace associations, each of which had either military or nonmilitary functions, cut across the divisions, so that they formed checks on, and counterpoises to, the traditional power units. The heads of the most important of the palace associations, including the units assigned to the offspring of former and reigning Asantehene (Busia 1951: 95), were included in the state council. Since appointments to the headships of the palace associations were in the gift of the Asantehene, the administrative reform represented an intrusion of patrimonialism (Weber 1947: 347) into the traditional political organisation.' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1983. “Peasants In 19Th-Century Asante”, 474§REF§ The purpose of this new administrative structure was to 'enforce subordination of the conquered rulers to the Asantehene. For this purpose the Asante kings used an administrative staff recruited from their gyase, household organization, consisting of units of functionaries with appointive headships [...] These palace associations, called afekuo (Reondorf, 1895: 119; Rattray, 1929: 91), were recruited from free attendants, warcaptives, purchased slaves (nnonkofo), and other bondsmen; in other words, persons connected by “ties of personal loyalty” (Weber, 1947: 342) to the various Asante Kings.' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1986. “Asante Praise Poems: The Ideology Of Patrimonialism”, 165§REF§ Senior public functionaries had a stool system of their own: 'In Kumasi proper there were seventy-seven stools, representing seventy-seven public functionaries, as, for example, the Bantuma Chief, or the Chief of the Royal Burial Grove, the Ateni Chief, or the Chief of the Lamplighters.' §REF§Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 26§REF§ Some foreigners were employed in highly specialized roles: 'A form of treasury partly staffed by literate Muslims was created. Groups within the capital began to build up expertise in particular areas of administration and to concentrate on this as a way to power and wealth. Careers began to open for those with intelligence, negotiating skill and a steady nerve.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 17§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Bureaucratic control was exercised by <i>ippis</i>, a board of free-citizens." }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The bureaucrats in a city-state were the <i>manon</i> (<i>μάνων</i> or <i>γραμματεύς των κόσμων</i>), secretary of the Kosmoi, the <i>ippis</i> (<i>ιππείς</i>), assistants to <i>Kosmoi</i>, the <i>gnomon</i> (<i>γνώμων</i>) who kept the public records, the <i>titai</i> (<i>τίται</i>), <i>epottas</i> (<i>επόττας</i>), <i>damioi</i> (<i>δάμιοι</i>) and <i>evnomiotai</i> (<i>ευνομιώται</i>), supervisors of the public administration, the <i>tamiai</i> (<i>ταμίαι</i>), <i>pratores</i> (<i>πράττορες</i>), and <i>esprattais</i> (<i>εσπράτταις</i>), low-rank officers responsible for the public finance, the <i>agoranomoi</i> (<i>αγορανόμοι</i>), who control the order in the market and public spaces, the <i>karpodaistai</i> (<i>καρποδαισται</i>), produce-dividers responsible for the common meals (the <i>sissitia</i>), the <i>spevdos</i> (<i>σπεύσδος</i>), the public messenger, and the <i>nakoroi</i> (<i>νακόροι</i>) responsible for the sanctuaries §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 199§REF§. These bureaucrats were either annually elected by the free-citizens or appointed by the <i>Kosmoi</i>." }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The bureaucrats in a city-state were the <i>manon</i> (<i>μάνων</i> or <i>γραμματεύς των κόσμων</i>) secretary of the Kosmoi, the <i>ippis</i> (<i>ιππείς</i>) assistants to Kosmoi, the <i>gnomon</i> (<i>γνώμων</i>) who kept the public records, the <i>titai</i> (<i>τίται</i>), the <i>epottas</i> (<i>επόττας</i>), the <i>damioi</i> (<i>δάμιοι</i>) and the <i>evnomiotai</i> (<i>ευνομιώται</i>), supervisors of the public administration, the <i>tamiai</i> (<i>ταμίαι</i>), the <i>prat ores</i> (<i>πράττορες</i>), and the <i>esprattais</i> (<i>εσπράτταις</i>), low-rank officers responsible for the public finance, the <i>agoranomoi</i> (<i>αγορανόμοι</i>), who control the order in the market and public spaces, the <i>karpodaistai</i> (<i>καρποδαισται</i>), produce-dividers responsible for the common meals (<i>sissitia</i>), the <i>spevdos</i> (<i>σπεύσδος</i>), public messenger, and the <i>nakoroi</i> (<i>νακόροι</i>) responsible for the sanctuaries. §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 199§REF§ These bureaucrats were either annually elected by the free-citizens or appointed by the <i>Kosmoi</i>." }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The administration of the Mycenaean states is organized in a three-tiered hierarchical system of bureaucratic control: a) the central bureaucracy located in the palace (or adjacent subsidiary structures) at the capital of the state, to b) local officials and representatives of Palace residing in the second-order centers scattered in the polity’s districts, down to c) collective groups and individuals of various occupations and social standings in the small settlements within these districts. §REF§Karagianni, A. 2015. \"Linear A administration: the communicative aspects of written media and the organization of the Mycenaean Bureaucracy,\" in Enderwitz, S. and Sauer, R. (eds), <i>Communication and Materiality</i>, Berlin and Boston, 25-60.§REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Gradually, during the Early Modern period (3000-2200 BC), the Cretans evolved all the characteristics that we think of as being distinctively Minoan. Only the 'palaces' remained unbuilt. The 'palace' society (c.2000-1380 BC) was clearly very advanced in its orderly and bureaucratic organization, showing a strongly rational and practical side with highly developed craft technologies, and yet it also possessed all the imaginative power and childlike freshness of a very young culture.\" §REF§(Castleden 2002: 4-5) Castleden, R. 2002. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. Routledge Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Gradually, during the Early Modern period (3000-2200 BC), the Cretans evolved all the characteristics that we think of as being distinctively Minoan. Only the 'palaces' remained unbuilt. The 'palace' society (c.2000-1380 BC) was clearly very advanced in its orderly and bureaucratic organization, showing a strongly rational and practical side with highly developed craft technologies, and yet it also possessed all the imaginative power and childlike freshness of a very young culture.\" §REF§(Castleden 2002: 4-5) Castleden, R. 2002. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. Routledge Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Kydonia is the only Cretan centre which provides evidence for bureaucracy. §REF§Vlazaki-Andreadaki, M. 2010. \"Khania (Kydonia),\" in Cline, E. H. (ed.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC)</i>, Oxford, 518-28.§REF§ It very likely that the administration of the local polity was organized in a three-tiered hierarchical system of bureaucratic control: a) the central bureaucracy located in the palace (or adjacent subsidiary structures) at the town, to b) local officials and representatives of Palace residing in the second-order centers scattered in the polity’s districts, down to c) collective groups and individuals of various occupations and social standings in the small settlements within these districts. §REF§Karagianni, A. 2015. \"Linear A administration: the communicative aspects of written media and the organization of the Mycenaean Bureaucracy,\" in Enderwitz, S. and Sauer, R. (eds), <i>Communication and Materiality</i>, Berlin and Boston, 25-60.§REF§" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Evidence for administrative activities dated 2400-1900 BCE might indirectly imply the existence of \"bureaucrats\". §REF§e.g. Sbonias, K. \"Social development, management of production, and symbolic representation in Prepalatial Crete,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 25-51.§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from discussion in sources of development/introduction in later periods" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "A~P", "comment": null, "description": "Konohiki formed a “primitive bureaucracy” according to Sahlins§REF§Sahlins, Marshall 1958. Social Stratification in Polynesia. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. Pg. 16.§REF§. There was also an “incipent bureaucracy”§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai’i. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pg. 75.§REF§ composed of specialists in memorizing genealogies, traditions, and other information." }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists The village headmen and war-leaders were not bureaucrats, as there was little formalization on the village level. Longhouse communities are headed by informal leaders doubling as village functionaries: 'In every Iban long-house there are two offices of great importance--one secular and the other ritual. They are the positions of tuai rumah and tuai burong . In most long-houses they are held by different individuals, but it is perfectly permissible for one man to hold both offices, and in some communities this does happen. Neither position is ever held by a woman. (c.f. Footnote No. 22). When used as an adjective, the word tuai means old, or mature, but as a noun it refers to any senior and influential member of a community. Here, the emphasis is not primarily on age, but on the personal qualities of the individual concerned. Thus, a party of young men setting off on an expedition ( bejalai ), to gather jungle produce, always has its leader, or tuai , though he may be no more than in his early twenties. And in long-house communities, able, though only middle-aged men often come to exert very considerable authority and influence. In all contemporary long-houses however, there is one man who holds the title of tuai rumah , or house headman.' §REF§Freeman, Derek 1955. “Report On The Iban Of Sarawak: Vol. 1: Iban Social Organization”, 46§REF§ Only in the colonial period did rulers superimpose an administrative system of regional chiefs onto the village-based social structure of autonomous longhouse communities: 'Prior to the arrival of the British adventurer, James Brooke, there were no permanent leaders, but the affairs of each house were directed by consultations of family leaders. Men of influence included renowned warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists. Brooke, who became Rajah of Sarawak, and his nephew, Charles Johnson, created political positions -- headman (TUAI RUMAH), regional chief (PENGHULU), paramount chief (TEMENGGONG) -- to restructure Iban society for administrative control, especially for purposes of taxation and the suppression of head-hunting. The creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s have profoundly changed the Iban.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ Iban social organization remained relatively egalitarian even then: 'The economic self-sufficiency of the bilik -family is reflected in other areas of Iban social life. Unlike the Kayan, Kenyah, pagan Melanau and several other Bornean peoples, the Iban are not divided into social classes. Nor is there any form of institutionalized leadership based upon hereditary succession, or some other socially divisive principle. Instead Iban society is characterized by a strongly egalitarian ethos. In this respect, each bilik -family jurally constitutes a discrete and autonomous social unit, which manages its own affairs and recognizes no higher authority than that of its own household head.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 159§REF§" } ] }