Full Time Bureaucrat List
A viewset for viewing and editing Full Time Bureaucrats.
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{ "count": 493, "next": null, "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/full-time-bureaucrats/?format=api&page=9", "results": [ { "id": 453, "polity": { "id": 355, "name": "iq_lakhmid_k", "long_name": "Lakhmid Kigdom", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 611 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Al-Nu'man 'the one-eyed' and 'the wanderer' built the al-Khawarnak palace, start of 5th century.§REF§(Bosworth et al 1982, 633) C E Bosworth. E Van Donzel. B Lewis. Ch Pellat. eds. 1982. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Volume V. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Heavily influenced by the Persians. Did they maintain full-time advisors? Seems most likely. The non-Lakhmid Arab ruler Iyas b Kabisa 602-611 CE had a Persian advisor.§REF§(Bosworth et al 1982, 634) C E Bosworth. E Van Donzel. B Lewis. Ch Pellat. eds. 1982. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Volume V. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 454, "polity": { "id": 56, "name": "pa_cocle_3", "long_name": "Late Greater Coclé", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "Helms argues that 'Although the ethnohistoric data are very scanty, some degree of \"internal\" administrative associations and responsibilities surely existed between the commoner population of a given territory or \"province\" and the elite cabras, sacos and/or quevis of that territory, who at the very least accepted generalized stewardship of the overall well-being, socially and ideologically, of the population of a given ancestral territory'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 56]</a> She believes cabras, the lowest-ranked elites, would have served as 'local administrators', <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 56]</a> but does not speculate on whether they were full-time. The evidence does not seem strong enough to justify coding full-time specialist bureaucrats present.", "description": null }, { "id": 455, "polity": { "id": 257, "name": "cn_later_qin_dyn", "long_name": "Later Qin Kingdom", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 417 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Officials of all ranks and descriptions.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§<br>During the 'Sixteen Kingdoms' period \"These peoples - or, to be precise, their elites - thus combined their own political and social traditions with large borrowings from Chinese concepts and institutions. Their ruling classes were so thoroughly sinicized that they regarded themselves as heirs to the old political units of North China.\"§REF§(Gernet 1996, 186) Jacques Gernet. J R Foster and Charles Hartman trans. 1996. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 456, "polity": { "id": 256, "name": "cn_later_yan_dyn", "long_name": "Later Yan Kingdom", "start_year": 385, "end_year": 409 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "During the 'Sixteen Kingdoms' period \"These peoples - or, to be precise, their elites - thus combined their own political and social traditions with large borrowings from Chinese concepts and institutions. Their ruling classes were so thoroughly sinicized that they regarded themselves as heirs to the old political units of North China.\"§REF§(Gernet 1996, 186) Jacques Gernet. J R Foster and Charles Hartman trans. 1996. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 457, "polity": { "id": 815, "name": "es_castile_crown", "long_name": "Crown of Castile", "start_year": 1231, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Full-time specialists", "description": "" }, { "id": 458, "polity": { "id": 212, "name": "sd_makuria_k_1", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Likely some sort of court-based government as with Nobadia in Lower Nubia. Officials/Ambassadors sent to Byzantium: \"In 573, a delegation arrived in the capital from Makuria bearing gifts for the emperor Justin 'of elephant tusks and a giraffe, and stated their friendship with the Romans'.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 33) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>\"In contrast with the wealth of information available for events in Lower Nubia, we have virtually no information on the early development of the regions further to the south, and hence no way of explaining the changes within the fledgling states of Makuria and Alwa.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 22) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> Core region of early Makuria and Alwa: \"high status burials at a number of sites suggests that there were regional centres dominated by an elite class\".§REF§(Welsby 2002, 22) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>Polish excavations suggests the town of Dongola was \"established in the second half of the 5th century with the deliberate intention of making them serve as the administrative center of the Kingdom of Makuria.\"§REF§(Godlewski 2004, 1045) Wlodzimierz Godlewski. Christian Nubia, Studies 1996-2000. Mat Immerzeel. Jacques van der Vliet. eds. 2004. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. Coptic Studies on the Threshold of a New Millennium. II. Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Coptic Studies Leiden 2000. Peeters Publishers. Leuven.§REF§" }, { "id": 459, "polity": { "id": 215, "name": "sd_makuria_k_2", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II", "start_year": 619, "end_year": 849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"There was clearly also a civil administration with its own scribes separate from the Church.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 103]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 460, "polity": { "id": 219, "name": "sd_makuria_k_3", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom III", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "\"There was clearly also a civil administration with its own scribes separate from the Church.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 103]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 461, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Bendahara (Chief Minister).§REF§(Blackburn 2006, 289) Kevin Blackburn. Colonial forces as postcolonial memories: the commemoration and memory of the Malay Regiment in modern Malaysia and Singapore. Tobias Rettig. Karl Hack. ed. 2006. Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"A feature of Malay states became a mutually advantageous partnership between the ruling dynasty with its magical aura of daulat (sovereignty), and an effective administrator who had the necessary military and economic support at any given time. The chronicle of the Melaka sultanate expressed the relationship symbolically in a compact between the ancestor of the sultans and the prototype of the powerful Bendahara line\".§REF§(Reid 2014, 1-2) Anthony Reid. 2014. The Blood of the People: Revolution and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra. National University of Singapore Press. Singapore.§REF§<br>Chief of the Exchequer chief tax collector who controlled Customs Officers. (R J Wilkinson. 'The Melaka Sultanate. 1935.) Harbour Master in charge of tax collection and enforcement of Harbour Laws. (Same reference?)." }, { "id": 462, "polity": { "id": 235, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate_22222", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1415 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Arabian style government? \"Muslim sultanates were formed, and were dominated by a hereditary aristocracy which purported to be of Arab origin, while the mass of the population was Ethiopian\".§REF§(Cerulli 1992, 281) E. Cerulli. Ethiopia's relations with the Muslim world. I Hrbek ed. 1992. General History of Africa. Abridged Edition. III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. James Currey. California.§REF§ Ibn Battuta mentions wazirs in Somali Mogadishu.§REF§(Abdullahi 2017, 54) Abdurahman Abdullahi. 2017 Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 463, "polity": { "id": 209, "name": "ma_mauretania", "long_name": "Mauretania", "start_year": -125, "end_year": 44 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Mauretania certainly had coinage during the reign of Bocchus II in the mid-first century BCE.§REF§(Sayles 1998, 115) Wayne G Sayles. 1998. Ancient Coin Collecting IV. Roman Provincial Coins. Krause Publications. Iola.§REF§ This means a government building, a mint, was present, which presumably was run by a specialist worker. We might also infer that the court government had a finance official to manage taxation and revenue." }, { "id": 464, "polity": { "id": 55, "name": "pa_cocle_2", "long_name": "Middle Greater Coclé", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "For the later precontact period, Helms has argued that 'Although the ethnohistoric data are very scanty, some degree of \"internal\" administrative associations and responsibilities surely existed between the commoner population of a given territory or \"province\" and the elite cabras, sacos and/or quevis of that territory, who at the very least accepted generalized stewardship of the overall well-being, socially and ideologically, of the population of a given ancestral territory'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 56]</a> She believes cabras, the lowest-ranked elites, would have served as 'local administrators', <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 56]</a> but does not speculate on whether they were full-time. The evidence is therefore not strong enough to justify coding full-time specialist bureaucrats present for the precontact period, and we know even less about this earlier period (700-1000 CE). Panamanian societies before Spanish contact produced no written records, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IPHPU92K\">[Mendizábal_Archibold 2004, p. 14]</a> so it is not clear how such administrators would perform their duties.", "description": null }, { "id": 465, "polity": { "id": 52, "name": "pa_monagrillo", "long_name": "Monagrillo", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Panamanian societies were non-literate before Spanish contact,§REF§(Mendizábal Archibold 2004, 14) Mendizábal Archibold, Tomás Enrique. 2004. “Panamá Viejo: An Analysis of the Construction of Archaeological Time in Eastern Panamá.” PhD Dissertation, University College London. Seshat URL: <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IPHPU92K\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IPHPU92K</a>.§REF§ and at present there is no evidence to suggest the presence of administrative institutions in Monagrillo. John Hoopes thinks it is likely that the Monagrillo people were not organized into a polity.§REF§John W. Hoopes 2017, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish.§REF§" }, { "id": 466, "polity": { "id": 530, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Early Postclassic", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Spanish written records refer to bureaucratic positions, such as the positions of tribute collector, ward boss and golaba, or “lord’s solicitor” who collected goods and services from surrounding villages.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p376§REF§§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p217§REF§ However, these records date from many centuries after this period, and we lack adequate information about administrative structures at Monte Albán to be able to discern whether full-time specialist bureaucrats (i.e. not just chiefs or generals with administrative duties) were present.§REF§Gary Feinman, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§" }, { "id": 467, "polity": { "id": 313, "name": "ru_novgorod_land", "long_name": "Novgorod Land", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "15th century so after this period: \"The expansion in economic activity led to the increased use of money in every day life. Government officials who formerly had been paid in kind were now put on money salaries, more and more of the taxes were collected in cash, and, most important, many of the peasants' obligations to their seigniors were converted into money payments, especially in the regions where trade was most active.\"§REF§(Blum 1971, 131) Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 468, "polity": { "id": 206, "name": "dz_numidia", "long_name": "Numidia", "start_year": -220, "end_year": -46 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Bomilcar was king Jugurtha's \"most confidential counsellor\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 156) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 469, "polity": { "id": 542, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy", "long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period", "start_year": 1873, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Full-time specialists Informal tribal authority and ascribed social status remained relevant throughout the 19th and 20th centuries: 'It is a continuing challenge of governmental strategies to achieve a stable balance between relatively autonomous tribes and the state. Alliance with dominant tribal confederation therefore may still be influential in the distribution of development projects by central authorities.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ 'Yemeni society is hierarchically organized on the basis of birth status and occupation. Until relative political stability was achieved in the late 1970s, birth and occupational statuses were legitimized as ascribed social categories. The elimination of practical barriers that restrict power and privilege?especially through marriage and education?to certain members of the society has only just begun. Under the system of ranked social categories, members of respectable groupings recognized their own noble descent and considered themselves the protectors of servants, former slaves, artisans, and certain farmers, all of whom were thought of as ?deficient,? either because they provided a service or craft?such as bloodletting, butchery, or barbering?that involved contact with polluting substances, or because their origins were discredited as ignoble. The tribal code of protection was also extended to elites at the top of the social scale, especially to sayyids, the reputed descendants of the Prophet, who originally came to Yemen to serve as mediators between tribes and who are respected for their religious expertise. Another social category, that of legal scholars, also inherits high status in the ranking order. Scholars, along with shuyukh (sing. shaykh ), who are tribal leaders, typically serve as village administrators. The majority of Yemenis use various equivalent or substitute terms to identify themselves within the social hierarchy, including qaba\\??\\il in the northern highlands to connote tribal membership, ra\\??\\iyah in the south to mean ?cultivators,? and \\??\\arab along the coast to signify respectable ancestry. Former slaves continue to act as agents and domestics in the households of former masters, but the most menial jobs (e.g., removing human waste from the street) are reserved for Yemenis who are alleged descendants of Ethiopians of the pre-Islamic era. In addition, Yemen relies on a range of foreigners from the East and West for professional, technical, and custodial services.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ The Ottomans and the Imamate did not supplant autonomous tribal institutions: 'The first thing to be said is that no attempt was made to abolish tribalism as such. Where tribal practice was equated so readily with ignorance, and thus with irreligion, this might seem surprising, but it is as if the phenomenon were God-given; as much part of the intractable world and God's will as the mountains or the weather. Indeed,there were only 'tribes', not tribalism, and th eradical ambition of rebuilding humanity to some human design (a 'sociological' ambition, of its nature) is more a feature of our own time. Nor did theImamate command the means to root out institutions on any large scale. The Hamidal-Din Imams, Yahya (1904-48)and Ahmad(1948-62), did not reproduce the elaborate courts and armies of the early Qasimis but were rather frugal men who personally supervised even small, local matters and ran their administrations with the forms of power available to them (see e.g.Rihani 1930:220ff.; Scott 1942:174-5).Over the following decades they gradually built an army, whose officers in the end were to be part of the Imamate's undoing,but the tribes remained the stronger force, always carefully fragmented by their rulers' policy. The aim was that 'the pure shari'a be established', which (as in most pre-bureaucratic Islamic states) meant first of all that the zakat, or canonical tax, be collected and a modicum of order retained. 'Broadly speaking, the tribal Zaydi north was governed by indirect rule with subsidies providedf or the chiefs. The Shafi'I south was less fortunate in being under direct rule by government officials working in concert with local headmen'(Serjeant 1979:92). In both areas the 'headmen' received a cut of the tax which it was their responsibility to collect. One is sometimes told now that this was a quarter of the total for northerners and a tenth for the Shafi'I south (Messick1978:170), but the details in the north were in fact irregular.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen\", 228§REF§ Nevertheless, government organization and documentation became increasingly bureaucratized: 'Developments in the 19th century were fateful for Yemen. The determination of various European powers to establish a presence in the Middle East elicited an equally firm determination in other powers to thwart such efforts. For Yemen, the most important participants in the drama were the British, who took over Aden in 1839, and the Ottoman Empire, which at mid-century moved back into North Yemen, from which it had been driven by the Yemenis two centuries earlier. The interests and activities of these two powers in the Red Sea basin and Yemen were substantially intensified by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the reemergence of the Red Sea route as the preferred passage between Europe and East Asia. As the Ottomans expanded inland and established themselves in Sanaa and Taʿizz, the British expanded north and east from Aden, eventually establishing protectorates over more than a dozen of the many local statelets; this was done more in the interest of protecting Aden’s hinterland from the Ottomans and their Yemeni adversaries than out of any desire to add the territory and people there to the British Empire. By the early 20th century the growing clashes between the British and the Ottomans along the undemarcated border posed a serious problem; in 1904 a joint commission surveyed the border, and a treaty was concluded, establishing the frontier between Ottoman North Yemen and the British possessions in South Yemen. Later, of course, both Yemens considered the treaty an egregious instance of non-Yemeni interference in domestic affairs. The north became independent at the end of World War I in 1918, with the departure of the Ottoman forces; the imam of the Zaydīs, Yaḥyā Maḥmūd al-Mutawwakil, became the de facto ruler in the north by virtue of his lengthy campaign against the Ottoman presence in Yemen. In the 1920s Imam Yaḥyā sought to consolidate his hold on the country by working to bring the Shāfiʿī areas under his administrative jurisdiction and by suppressing much of the intertribal feuding and tribal opposition to the imamate. In an effort to enhance the effectiveness of his campaigns against the tribes and other fractious elements, the imam sent a group of Yemeni youth to Iraq in the mid-1930s to learn modern military techniques and weaponry. These students would eventually become the kernel of domestic opposition to Yaḥyā and his policies.' §REF§<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/History#toc45273\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/History#toc45273</a>§REF§ 'Forms, that is, documentary blanks to be filled in, appeared in Ibb with the Ottomans. At the local telegraph office, for example, one of the earliest of these forms had a crescent seal at the top, headings in Ottoman Turkish and French, boxes for office use, and lines to contain the message.11 Such blank forms proliferated in the Ottoman bureaucracies as they would later under the republicans. The commercial receipt, another type of printed form to be filled in, was introduced via Aden. Prior to the “order form” itself, the written purchase-requests Ibb merchants sent to Aden were connected narrations by a scribe (concluding with qala, “said,” and then the writer's name).12 Their internal arrangements were similar to the scalloped entries of the old foundation register. Existing apart from and prior to any particular written content, forms are the mechanical templates of the new age of writing. As with the Ottomans earlier in the century, the principal goal of the Egyptian advisors attached to Ibb offices in the late 1970s was to facilitate a bureacratic movement in a new direction, to assist functionaries in separating what had formerly been lumped together, to itemize what had been recorded whole. While old accounting registers were predominantly horizontal (written) in orientation, the new exhibited a more vertical (numerical) alignment. Thus while the pages of a tax collector's manual from early in the century contained entries strung across the page like laundry on a line, a comparable manual from circa 1955 had two prominent axes, one of grain types, the other of terrace names, creating a grid for entering the relevant figures. Vertical orientations facilitate whole-page summations and are associated with a new emphasis on the efficient extraction and display of numerical data, which used to be embedded in written text.' §REF§Messick, Brinkley 2012. \"The Calligraphic State\", 241§REF§ 'With the Turkish occupation (1872-1918), the dramatic events that historians record shift in part from the west and south into the tribes‘ own territory. The political reality was complex, and at most points up to 1918 the Turks found support from Yemenis, not least from certain northern shaykhs whose fortunes were bound up with the Turkish presence. The clerk of the San’a’ court learned Turkish. Many if the ‘ulama’ supported the Turks even when the Imam’s fight against them was at its height, and he ambiguities of resisting the Turkish Sultan, who himself was seen to be beset by Christendom, were usually marked. None the less there was sustained resistance in the north. Tribes and Imams fought the Turks repeatedly, and the dynasty of Imams emerged that was to rule Yemen until the 1960s.’ §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. “Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen”, 219§REF§ We have assumed here that most Yemenis had little to no access to the Turkish administration." }, { "id": 470, "polity": { "id": 349, "name": "tr_pergamon_k", "long_name": "Pergamon Kingdom", "start_year": -282, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "e.g. financial managers. §REF§McShane, R. B. (1964). The foreign policy of the Attalids of Pergamum (Vol. 53). University of Illinois Press, pp. 169.§REF§" }, { "id": 471, "polity": { "id": 293, "name": "ua_russian_principate", "long_name": "Russian Principate", "start_year": 1133, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "The veche had a chairman which could be a bishop, usually as mediator, occasionally the prince if the discussion wasn't about relations between him and the populace. Decisions by consensus.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 429) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"before sending a baliliff to a foreign merchant the claimant must submit the case to the alderman of the foreign merchants' guild ... a foreign merchant with a claim against a local resident must seek the aid of a local official (the bailiff, detskii, or the tiun ...); in cases between a foreign and a local merchant, the court will apply the lex loc ...\" Tenth century Smolensk Pravda.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 464) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 472, "polity": { "id": 237, "name": "ml_songhai_1", "long_name": "Songhai Empire", "start_year": 1376, "end_year": 1493 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "After 1493 CE Askiya Muhammad Toure \"supported by Mande clans ... created a standing army and a central bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§" }, { "id": 473, "polity": { "id": 259, "name": "cn_southern_qi_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Qi State", "start_year": 479, "end_year": 502 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Court officials could present petitions to the emperor 'requesting the impeachment of officials for improper conduct.'§REF§(Knechtges 2014, 166-175) David R. Knechtges. Marriage and Social Status. Shen Yue's 'Impeaching Wang Yuan.' Wendy Swartz. Robert Ford Campany. Yang Lu. Jessey J C Choo. 2013. Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. Columbia University Press. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 474, "polity": { "id": 380, "name": "th_sukhotai", "long_name": "Sukhotai", "start_year": 1238, "end_year": 1419 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Sukhothai had \"incipient administrative practices\".§REF§(? 1979, 5) ? Introduction. Clark D. Neher. ed. Modern Thai Politics: From Village to Nation. Revised Edition. 1979. Schenkman Publishing Company. Cambridge.§REF§ \"Sukhothai was one of the early Kingdoms that emerged in Thailand integrating traditional muang administration with the Indian mandala concept of a centralized state.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§ \"It also borrowed from the Khmer various art forms and administrative structures.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§ Evidence of bureaucratic organization.§REF§(Shoocongdej 2007, 386) Rasmi Shoocongdej. The Impact of Colonialism and Nationalism in the Archaeology of Thailand. Philip L. Kohl. Mara Kozelsky. Nachman Ben-Yehuda. eds. 2007. Selective Remembrances. Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 475, "polity": { "id": 217, "name": "dz_tahert", "long_name": "Tahert", "start_year": 761, "end_year": 909 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The largest and most stable Ibadite state was Tahert in the highlands of central Algeria, where between about A.D. 760 and 900 there flourished an ingenious compromise between organized Muslim government and traditional Berber tribalism. The kingdom was led by imams, who, though they were elected by and were responsible to a council of tribal elders, possessed something of an administrative hierarchy under their personal command.\"§REF§(Fage and Tordoff 2002, 159) J D Fage. William Tordoff. 2002. A History of Africa. Fourth Edition. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 476, "polity": { "id": 271, "name": "ua_skythian_k_3", "long_name": "Third Scythian Kingdom", "start_year": -429, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "During the long reign of Atheas a series of new phenomena can be observed in Scythia ... which show quite clearly that a state, although insufficiently developed, did exist amongst the Scythians.\"§REF§(Melukova 1990, 105) A I Melyukova. Julia Crookenden trans. The Scythians. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 477, "polity": { "id": 271, "name": "ua_skythian_k_3", "long_name": "Third Scythian Kingdom", "start_year": -429, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "During the long reign of Atheas a series of new phenomena can be observed in Scythia ... which show quite clearly that a state, although insufficiently developed, did exist amongst the Scythians.\"§REF§(Melukova 1990, 105) A I Melyukova. Julia Crookenden trans. The Scythians. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 478, "polity": { "id": 230, "name": "dz_tlemcen", "long_name": "Tlemcen", "start_year": 1235, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Despite military weakness, the dynasty was characterized by a well-developed bureaucracy from the time of its first ruler, Abu Yahya Yaghmurasan bin Zayyan.\"§REF§(Bourn and Park 2016, 20) Aomar Bourn. Thomas K Park. 2016. Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield. Lantham.§REF§ \"This care for qualifications extended to the vizier, who was chosen for his financial and legal expertise rather than, as tended to be the case in Morocco, for political astuteness combined with humble origins (lack of a legitimate claim to the throne).\"§REF§(Bourn and Park 2016, 20) Aomar Bourn. Thomas K Park. 2016. Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield. Lantham.§REF§" }, { "id": 479, "polity": { "id": 276, "name": "cn_tuyuhun", "long_name": "Tuyuhun", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 663 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Their administration was based on the Chinese model and made use of Chinese writing.\"§REF§(Pan 1997, 45) Yihong Pan. 1997. Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and Its Neighbors. Western Washington University.§REF§" }, { "id": 480, "polity": { "id": 375, "name": "cn_viet_baiyu_k", "long_name": "Viet Baiyu Kingdom", "start_year": -332, "end_year": -109 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Nan Yue kingdom: A Chinese seal found in the tomb of the last Nan Yue king shows they were \"sinicized.\"§REF§(Faure 2007, 17) David Faure. 2007. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. Stanford University Press. Stanford.§REF§<br>South Yue Kingdom (203-111 BC): \"Guangzhou had, since the Qin, been a part of the civilized world of China, even if its inhabitants did not all fall within its pale.\"§REF§(Faure 2007, 18) David Faure. 2007. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. Stanford University Press. Stanford.§REF§" }, { "id": 481, "polity": { "id": 240, "name": "ma_wattasid_dyn", "long_name": "Wattasid", "start_year": 1465, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Wattasids, who were previously a line of hereditary viziers, usurped the Merinids in 1465 CE.§REF§(Ellingham et al 2010, 570) Mark Ellingham. Daniel Jacobs. Hamish Brown. Shaun McVeigh. 2010. The Rough Guide to Morocco. Dorling Kindersley Ltd.§REF§" }, { "id": 482, "polity": { "id": 291, "name": "cn_xixia", "long_name": "Xixia", "start_year": 1032, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Confucian style of government.§REF§(Steele 2015, 245) Tracey Steele. Xi Xia. Steven L Danver. 2015. Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§ Xixia rulers \"relied heavily on Chinese advisers and sponsored Confucian scholars\".§REF§(? 2010, 91) ?. The Imperial Age. Tim Cooke. ed. 2010. The New Cultural Atlas Of China. Marshall Cavendish. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 483, "polity": { "id": 279, "name": "kz_yueban", "long_name": "Yueban", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The Yueban were part of northern Xiongnu, who inhabited in the upper Hi River during the fourth and fifth centuries.\"§REF§(Li and Hansen 2003, 63) Jian Li. Valerie Hansen. 2003. The glory of the silk road: art from ancient China. The Dayton Art Institute.§REF§ \"From limited references in the Beishi (Northern histories) and the Weishu (History of the Wei), we know that the Yueban had a well-developed kingdom, with a population of two hundred thousand that spanned thousands of kilometers, in the area north of Kucha.\"§REF§(Li and Hansen 2003, 63) Jian Li. Valerie Hansen. 2003. The glory of the silk road: art from ancient China. The Dayton Art Institute.§REF§♠ Source of support ♣" }, { "id": 484, "polity": { "id": 227, "name": "et_zagwe", "long_name": "Zagwe", "start_year": 1137, "end_year": 1269 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "A fine inscribed metal processional cross and texts written by/for Zagwe kings \"are probably the earliest authentic feudal deeds transmitted to us. Although some survive only in copies, they attest to the existence of a sophisticated administration which demonstrates substantial continuity with the protocols known from Aksumite inscriptions.\"§REF§(Bausi 2017, 110) Alessandro Bausi. The Zagwe. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§<br>\"Agaw local chiefs held key political and military positions\" within the former Aksum polity.§REF§(Getahun and Kassu 2014, 8) Solomon Addis Getahun. Wudu Tafete Kassu. 2014. Culture and Customs of Ethiopia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.§REF§ \"The Amharic language developed as a court language during the Zagwe period. Several books were also translated into the Geez language. There are also Geez engravings in the walls of the churches of Lalibela.\"§REF§(Getahun and Kassu 2014, 9) Solomon Addis Getahun. Wudu Tafete Kassu. 2014. Culture and Customs of Ethiopia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.§REF§ \"The Zagwe rulers gave continuity to Aksumite state structure, Christianity, and the use of the Geez language.\"§REF§(Getahun and Kassu 2014, 9) Solomon Addis Getahun. Wudu Tafete Kassu. 2014. Culture and Customs of Ethiopia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.§REF§" }, { "id": 485, "polity": { "id": 222, "name": "tn_zirid_dyn", "long_name": "Zirids", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1148 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Fifth ruler Tamim Ibn Al-Mu'izz Ibn Badis gave a Christian George of Antioch \"authority over the financial affairs of the Zirid state, a position he reportedly held with members of his family until Tamim's death in 1108.\"§REF§(? 2012, 503) ? . Tamim Ibn Al-Mu'izz Ibn Badis. Emmanuel K Akyeampong. Henry Louis Gates Jr. eds. 2012. Dictionary of African Biography: Abach - Brand, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Wazir: \"the powerful Wazir Abu 'l- Hasan Ali b. Abi 'l-Rijal who was able to promote the young poet and scholar in the eyes of the Caliph.\"§REF§(Knapp 1977, 406) Wilfrid Knapp. 1977. North West Africa: A Political and Economic Survey. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 486, "polity": { "id": 586, "name": "gb_england_norman", "long_name": "Norman England", "start_year": 1066, "end_year": 1153 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "State officials in Norman England, including sheriffs, earls, and knights, performed multiple functions:<br>\r\nAdministrative duties: Tax collection, law enforcement, and land management.\r\nMilitary duties: Leading troops, organizing local defenses, and garrisoning castles.\r\nThe lack of functional specialization meant these officials were not dedicated full-time administrative specialists. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JISXN2HM\">[Carpenter 2003]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 488, "polity": { "id": 798, "name": "de_east_francia", "long_name": "East Francia", "start_year": 842, "end_year": 919 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "East Francia’s governance was based on the feudal system, where administrative duties were carried out by regional lords, dukes, and counts, who combined these tasks with military and judicial responsibilities. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GI5MI52S\">[Riché 1993]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SHDPVIS\">[Reuter 1991]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 489, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "Ottoman Empire relied on salaried officials in the central administration based in Istanbul, such as scribes (katip), finance officers (defterdar), and inspectors (müfettiş). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M26QR6CH\">[Finkel 2007]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 490, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": 1820, "year_to": 1840, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "absent", "comment": "By 1838, therefore, we find the powers of the national government\r\nto be, in actual practice, divided between three agencies, the king, the\r\nkuhina-nui, and the council of chiefs. It thus appears that some part\r\nof the power of the absolute king had been transferred to the chiefs, whose\r\nstatus was thereby considerably improved. But up to 1839 this distribution of power had not extended beyond the chiefs. The common people\r\nwere still under complete subjection to the alii and had practically no\r\nrights that the chiefs were bound to respect, except that of removing\r\nto the land of another chief. There had been no essential modification\r\nof the old feudal land system, and no formal organization of the government along lines familiar to foreigners <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ST8ANNS2\">[Kuykendall 1997, p. 153]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 491, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": 1840, "year_to": 1898, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "present", "comment": "The next section of the constitution dealt with the tax officers ; they were to be appointed by the king and the kuhina-nui, and not\r\nonly assessed and collected the taxes, but also served as judges in all\r\ncases arising under the tax laws and in cases between land agents and\r\nbetween landlords and their tenants. From their decisions an appeal\r\nmight be taken to the governor and from the governor to the supreme\r\ncourt. The inferior or district judges on the several islands were to be\r\nappointed by the governors ; it was their business to hear and decide all\r\ncases arising under the laws except those within the jurisdiction of the\r\ntax officers ; from the decisions of these inferior judges an appeal might\r\nbe taken to the supreme court. The supreme court was composed of the\r\nking, the kuhina-nui, and four other judges appointed by the lower\r\nbranch of the legislature; this court had only appellate jurisdiction. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ST8ANNS2\">[Kuykendall 1997, p. 169]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 492, "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "uncoded", "comment": "Full-time specialists. probably unknown", "description": null }, { "id": 493, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "uncoded", "comment": "\"The list of activities dependent on administration for the Erlitou state - agriculture, the construction of public buildings and city walls, the bronze industry, the army - is equally applicable to Erligang, but the scale of those activities had increased enormously.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KVA5IWCB\">[Wang 2014, p. 179]</a> \"Exemplified by Zhengzhou and Anyang, each city was composed of a centrally situated ceremonial and administrative enclave occupied primarily by royalty, priests and a few selected craftsmen... (Wheatley 1971: 30-47).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DE5TU7HY\">[Liu_Chen 2012, p. 295]</a> \"Early urban centers in China clearly show hierarchical planning, in terms of urban layout and population allocation. This planning is manifested particularly by the palatial or inner city walls, which segregated different population groups.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DE5TU7HY\">[Liu_Chen 2012, p. 295]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 494, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "uncoded", "comment": "unknown", "description": null }, { "id": 495, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "uncoded", "comment": "The Wari had administrators <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TDZLK4KC\">[Covey 2006, p. 71]</a> which suggests there may have been a bureaucratic class.", "description": null }, { "id": 496, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Full_time_bureaucrat", "full_time_bureaucrat": "uncoded", "comment": "unknown", "description": null } ] }