Foreign Coin List
A viewset for viewing and editing Foreign Coins.
GET /api/sc/foreign-coins/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/foreign-coins/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/foreign-coins/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Turks used Sogdian money. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Uigur probably used Chinese and Sogdian money. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§ Later Xiongnu Imperial Confederation coded absent." }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cosmopolitan commerce centers: Timbuktu, Djenne, Biru, Soo, Ndob, Pekes and some others.§REF§(Diop 1987, 132-133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Currency \"consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage).\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cosmopolitan commerce centers: Timbuktu, Djenne, Biru, Soo, Ndob, Pekes and some others.§REF§(Diop 1987, 132-133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Currency \"consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage).\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Monetary items have not been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The system closest to coinage ever practiced in Mesoamerica was the widespread use of cacao beans and copper axes as media of exchange during the Postclassic.§REF§Berdan, Frances F., Marilyn A. Masson, Janine Gasco, and Michael E. Smith. (2003) \"An International Economy.\" In Michael E. Smith and Frances F. Berdan (eds.) <i>The Postclassic Mesoamerican World.</i> Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, pg. 102.§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Raw or manufatured prestige goods -- ceramics, precious stone, feathers, textiles, jewelry, ornaments, etc. (both \"articles\" like jade and feathers, and \"tokens\" like shells) -- likely functioned as \"primitive money\" or \"social currency.\"§REF§Piña Chan, Román. (1971). \"Preclassic or Formative Pottery and Minor Arts of the Valley of Mexico.\" In <i>The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10</i>, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.157-178.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 331-3.§REF§§REF§Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)\"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley.\" <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 39: 19-35.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). \"Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42.§REF§§REF§Hirth, Kenneth G. (1984). \"Early Exchange in Mesoamerica: An Introduction.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.1-16.§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The system closest to coinage ever practiced in Mesoamerica was the widespread use of cacao beans and copper axes as media of exchange during the Postclassic.§REF§Berdan, Frances F., Marilyn A. Masson, Janine Gasco, and Michael E. Smith. (2003) \"An International Economy.\" In Michael E. Smith and Frances F. Berdan (eds.) <i>The Postclassic Mesoamerican World.</i> Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, pg. 102.§REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Raw or manufatured prestige goods -- ceramics, precious stone, feathers, textiles, jewelry, ornaments, etc. (both \"articles\" like jade and feathers, and \"tokens\" like shells) -- likely functioned as \"primitive money\" or \"social currency.\"§REF§Piña Chan, Román. (1971). \"Preclassic or Formative Pottery and Minor Arts of the Valley of Mexico.\" In <i>The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10</i>, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.157-178.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 331-3.§REF§§REF§Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)\"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley.\" <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 39: 19-35.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). \"Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42.§REF§§REF§Hirth, Kenneth G. (1984). \"Early Exchange in Mesoamerica: An Introduction.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.1-16.§REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Although exchange of goods will have taken place, sources do not suggest that specific monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Although exchange of goods will have taken place, sources do not suggest that specific monetary items have been found dating to this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Norwegian coins were present.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ Given the prior circulation of foreign coins on the island, we have assumed that some monetization occurred during the Norwegian period, but without displacing barter entirely. Both ecclesiastical and secular authorities collected taxes from commoners: 'With like energy he preached the crusade to the Holy Land which had been urged at the Council of Bergen. People were prevailed upon to pay an extra tax of one öln vadmál year for the period of six years to defray the expenses of the undertaking. Bishop Jörund of Hólar was also encouraged by Arni's example to collect all sorts of dues for the church, and to enforce the provision of the church laws.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 219§REF§ 'This was made especially manifest by the new procedure introduced at this time of summoning people to Norway for trial. [...] The king's officers also travelled about collecting the royal revenues with greater severity that had hitherto been customary. They reproved the people for appealing to the bishop, and in some cases forbade them to pay as large church dues as the bishop had demanded.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 220§REF§ Trade with Norway continued, the latter attempting to monopolize the Icelandic exchange with being able to factually guarantee for an uninterrupted flow of goods: 'Trade and economic conditions continued as before without any distinct manifestation either of progress or decline. The destructive civil wars of the Sturlung period had undoubtedly done much to weaken the people's strength, but and had hampered somewhat their intercourse with foreign lands, but the more peaceful era inaugurated by the union with Norway brought no perceptible change in prevailing conditions. Some scholars have considered the provision in the union agreement that six ships should be sent to Iceland every year as evidence that the commerce with Iceland at this time was declining, but K. Maurer has shown that this conclusion is erroneous. For various reasons few ships would arrive in Iceland during some years, but the same happened also during the most vigorous period of Icelandic national life, as in 1187 and 1219, when the Icelandic annals record that no ship arrived in Iceland. [He proceeds to describe some famines during the Commonwealth Period.] The old spirit of maritime enterprise was dying out among the Icelanders, as among all the Scandinavian peoples. No progress was made in trade or ship-building, and the Hanseatic merchants had already made their appearance as competitors for the control of Scandinavian commerce.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 209§REF§ 'Though few ships might at times arrive in Icelandic harbors, many Norwegian merchantmen usually visited Iceland every year. The Icelandic annals state that in 1340 eleven ships came to Iceland, in 1345 twevle ships, in 1357 eighteen ships besides two which foundered on the voyage. Seagoing vessels were also built in Iceland. Many Icelanders owned ships with which they undoubtedly carried on trade, as had always been their custom, though most of the commerce was now in the hands of Norwegian merchants. But the import trade, which had always been small, could not supply the growing needs of the people. The Icelandic annals show that at times there must have been great need of imports, since it happened that the mass could not be celebrated for want of wine. During years when no ships came to Iceland, or when only one or two arrived each year, the need of articles for which people were wholly dependent on imports must have been very great. Still more deplorable was the inadequacy of imports during periods of famine and other great calamities, when little aid could be given the stricken population. Under ordinary circumstances commerce was probably sufficient to supply the people with the necessary articles, but the meaning of the provision regarding commerce inserted in the \"Gamil sáttmáli\", and constantly repeated in the union agreement, seems to have been that the Norwegian government should not suffer commerce at any time to fall below the specified minimum amount.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 228p§REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Alan Covey: \"No evidence of money. I don’t know how one would document “markets”—in the exchange sense or the spatial sense? There is not enough evidence to evaluate exchange systems in the Cuzco region before Inca times, and the study of Inca exchange is steeped in substantivist/Marxian ideology that downplays exchange.\" §REF§(Alan Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Alan Covey: \"No evidence of money. I don’t know how one would document “markets”—in the exchange sense or the spatial sense? There is not enough evidence to evaluate exchange systems in the Cuzco region before Inca times, and the study of Inca exchange is steeped in substantivist/Marxian ideology that downplays exchange.\" §REF§(Alan Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Alan Covey: \"No evidence of money. I don’t know how one would document “markets”—in the exchange sense or the spatial sense? There is not enough evidence to evaluate exchange systems in the Cuzco region before Inca times, and the study of Inca exchange is steeped in substantivist/Marxian ideology that downplays exchange.\" §REF§(Alan Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Alan Covey: \"No evidence of money. I don’t know how one would document “markets”—in the exchange sense or the spatial sense? There is not enough evidence to evaluate exchange systems in the Cuzco region before Inca times, and the study of Inca exchange is steeped in substantivist/Marxian ideology that downplays exchange.\" §REF§(Alan Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Alan Covey: \"No evidence of money. I don’t know how one would document “markets”—in the exchange sense or the spatial sense? There is not enough evidence to evaluate exchange systems in the Cuzco region before Inca times, and the study of Inca exchange is steeped in substantivist/Marxian ideology that downplays exchange.\" §REF§(Alan Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Another important difference lay in the long-time presence of special-purpose money and more sophisticated weights and measures than those found in the central Andean highlands. It is not clear how widely the currencies were used in prehistory. There is no evidence, for example, that land or labor could be purchased until the Colonial era (Hosler et al. 1990; Salomon 1986; 1987; Netherly 1978). The Incas themselves did not adopt the currencies for the state economy, although they used large amounts of the shell and gold for political and ceremonial ends. Instead, they either left things alone or manipulated the situation politically to give favored groups an advantage.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 320)§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Wari were an empire without money §REF§(McEwan and Williams in Bergh 2012, 73)§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', ‘1’ or 'No media of exchange or money' was present, not 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. Monetary exchange was introduced by the colonial powers." }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', ‘1’ or 'No media of exchange or money' was present, not 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. Monetary exchange was introduced by the colonial powers: 'By the 1930s many Koropata men had been to gaol for disobeying one or other of the Native Regulations. Tax had been introduced before World War I and the consequent need for money was a powerful impetus for the planting of village cash crops and continued signing on for plantation work. In this decade more Koropatans were recruited to work on Kokoda rubber plantations, thus coming into contact with other Papuans. More of the villagers were becoming familiar with Papuans from other areas. The mission was known only by rumour until 1928 when the Anglicans bought 5 acres at Baravaturu. During the 1930s the more mobile Koropatans became acquainted with a kind of white man whose activities and objectives seemed to differ from those they had previously encountered, the missionary more interested in their beliefs than their labour power (Files 407, Karius in 409, 411; Box 6549, G91).' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 57§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No coins have been found in the archaeological record at Mehrgarh.§REF§Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No coins have been found in the archaeological record at Mehrgarh.§REF§Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No coins have been found in the archaeological record at Mehrgarh.§REF§Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The pre-existing Indian currency with a legend of Indian Kharosthi script continued to be present. §REF§Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, eds. The Cambridge ancient history: Plates to Vol. VII, part I. Cambridge University Press, 2000. p. 30§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No coins have been found at Pirak.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The gold dinar was circulating as was the silver coin called a Tanka. Coins of the Delhi Sultans and early Ghaznavids were also being used locally after 1200 CE. §REF§Maclean, Derryl N. Religion and society in Arab Sind. Brill, 1989. pp.68-70; Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 135§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Maclean, Derryl N. Religion and society in Arab Sind. Brill, 1989. pp.68-70; Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 135§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Neither coins nor paper currency were present in the Indus Valley at this time.§REF§Wright, R. P. (2010) The Ancient Indus: urbanism, economy and society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. p260§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Neither coins nor paper currency were present in the Indus Valley at this time.§REF§Wright, R. P. (2010) The Ancient Indus: urbanism, economy and society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. p260§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Russian money also became an important medium of exchange: 'Yakut also engaged in the fur trade; by the twentieth century hunters for luxury furs had depleted the ermines, sables, and foxes, and they were relying on squirrels. Yakut merchants and transporters spread throughout the entire northeast, easing communications and trade for natives and Russians. They sold luxuries like silver and gold jewelry and carved bone, ivory, and wood crafts in addition to staples such as butter, meat, and hay. Barter, Russian money, and furs formed the media of exchange. Guns were imported, as was iron for local blacksmiths.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ Fox, ermine, and deer skins were also sold for money: 'The Yakuts hunt foxes only in autumn and winter by setting up traps and self-released bows. Sometimes foxes get caught in the nooses set up to hares, but rarely perish in the noose trap, since the beam is not sufficiently quick to lift their weight. The fox eats everything: fish, meat, berries, roots, even the carrions of other foxes that got caught in the trap. The fox is far from being a rare animal in the north of the region: I saw one on several occasions near people's houses and once witnessed a fox running across the yard of the yurta. A fox, especially the darker varieties which are larger, can be easily mistaken for a Yakut dog. The skin of the red fox serves in the north as a unit of exchange. It is priced between 2 and 5 rubles; sivodushka-between 6 & 15 rubles; and the black-brown variety between 25 and 50 rubles. I was shown very beautiful, perfectly black skins with a slight grizzle, for which 120 rubles was paid on the spot.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 275§REF§ 'ERMINE (mustela erminea), kyrnas, belelyakh, is the animal most hunted for the purposes of trade. It is found in all parts of the country, on the tableland and in the tundra. Increase and decrease in the numbers of this animal depend probably on the amount of available food. In winter it comes near human dwellings, gets into the granaries, and eats and carriesaway meat and fish. It is caught by special traps called hlopushi (chirkan - a mouse trap). The ermine is a predatory, bold, and curious animal. When irritated it will attack even human beings. Cases are known of the ermine inflicting serious wounds on people, for it attempts to cut through the blood vessels on the neck, where it ascends with exceptional speed and agility. The ermine skin is priced between 2 and 5 cents and is used as the smallest exchange unit.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 280§REF§ 'Deer meat is most delicious in September and October, and during this period the deer's fur is regarded as at its best. The northern deer's fur is considered warmer than that of the domesticated deer. On the spot the skin of the wild deer brings between 1 ruble and 2 rubles and 50 cents. The Yakuts hunt the deer with guns, or by setting up self-releasing bows. Pit-traps are not used by the Yakuts in hunting this or any other animal.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 290§REF§ Russian money was also at least occasionally used in dealings among the Yakut themselves: 'I at least never heard anything about a wealthy shaman; on the contrary, the shaman often gets no more than 5 kopeks for healing a sick eye. And how little is this sum worth north of Yakutsk! Some Yakuts refused to accept a twenty kopeks coin for a hazel-hen I wanted to buy, saying that they could not manage to use the money; if it had an eye, they would have used it as a button; but as there was no such, I was to take it back. The smallest unit for them is the ruble.' §REF§Priklonski, Vasilij, and Friedrich S. Krauss 1888. “Shamanism Among The Yakut\", 175§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. from India, Afghanistan when they came under control of the Caliphate. §REF§(Sayles 2009, 132)§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Chinese sycee money, Japanese silver coins and even European and American money, were readily accepted for international trade\" §REF§(Van Dongen, no publication year, p. 9)§REF§. Admittedly it is not clear whether Van Dongen here is referring to both Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin, or only the latter." }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Chinese sycee money, Japanese silver coins and even European and American money, were readily accepted for international trade\" §REF§(Van Dongen, no publication year, p. 9)§REF§." }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "tj_sarasm", "long_name": "Sarazm", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }