Foreign Coin List
A viewset for viewing and editing Foreign Coins.
GET /api/sc/foreign-coins/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/foreign-coins/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/foreign-coins/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Coinage was imported§REF§(Glazier and Peacock 2016) Darren Glazier. David Peacock. Historical background and previous investigations. David Peacock. Lucy Blue. eds. 2016. The Ancient Red Sea Port of Adulis, Eritrea: Results of the Eritro-British Expedition, 2004-5. Oxbow Books. Oxford.§REF§: \"foreign coins were imported into Aksum from South Arabian, Roman, and Indian sources.\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 146) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ From trade Aksum acquired Roman silver coins (found at Matara) and gold coins from the Kushan Empire.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 388) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " ccording to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', '4' Foreign coinage or paper currency was present, not ‘1’ 'No media of exchange or money', 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. Money was introduced by the colonial administration: 'The impact of these economic changes upon the Trukese was great. Just as under the Germans law and order were made the province of the administration, a step which can be reversed (without chaos) only by a long and intelligently directed course of evolution, so under the Japanese the step to a money economy and dependence upon some categories of imported goods was carried far enough beyond the German beginnings so that it too has become irreversible. While the Trukese were not indoctrinated in the more skilled techniques, such as deep-sea fishing and boat-building, there were many jobs available at manual labor, an ever-increasing flow of trade goods upon which to spend the earnings thereof, and head taxes to assure that those who did not work cut copra. The Trukese began to travel more and more on Japanese boats (many of which they have now taken over and operate), to use a wider variety of Japanese tools, to eat (although not depend upon) rice and canned fish, and to wear clothese exclusively of foreign material.' §REF§Gladwin, Thomas, and Seymour Bernard Sarason 1953. “Truk: Man In Paradise”, 43§REF§" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', '4' Foreign coinage or paper currency was present, not ‘1’ 'No media of exchange or money', 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. Money was introduced by the colonial administration: 'The impact of these economic changes upon the Trukese was great. Just as under the Germans law and order were made the province of the administration, a step which can be reversed (without chaos) only by a long and intelligently directed course of evolution, so under the Japanese the step to a money economy and dependence upon some categories of imported goods was carried far enough beyond the German beginnings so that it too has become irreversible. While the Trukese were not indoctrinated in the more skilled techniques, such as deep-sea fishing and boat-building, there were many jobs available at manual labor, an ever-increasing flow of trade goods upon which to spend the earnings thereof, and head taxes to assure that those who did not work cut copra. The Trukese began to travel more and more on Japanese boats (many of which they have now taken over and operate), to use a wider variety of Japanese tools, to eat (although not depend upon) rice and canned fish, and to wear clothese exclusively of foreign material.' §REF§Gladwin, Thomas, and Seymour Bernard Sarason 1953. “Truk: Man In Paradise”, 43§REF§ Barter was not displaced entirely." }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information found in sources so far." }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Local mint in Provins operated since the 10th century. By 1170s CE provided the dominant currency in Eastern France and widely used as far as central Italy. §REF§(Spufford 2006, 146)§REF§ Minted silver deniers, called provinois§REF§(Spufford 2006, 149)§REF§ These were the coins of the Champagne Fairs§REF§(Spufford 2006, 149)§REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " At least in the Early Carolingian period the most common foreign coins in use were Byzantine and Arab coins." }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " At least in the Early Carolingian period the most common foreign coins in use were Byzantine and Arab coins." }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " monnaie de Marsaille and monnaie gauloise finds within France 560-500 BCE but not close to Paris Bain region. §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Roman coinage finds in Merovingian burials suggests use of late Roman coins, perhaps as bullion due to high metal content. §REF§(Wood ed. 1998, 407)§REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Roman coinage finds in Merovingian burials suggests use of late Roman coins, perhaps as bullion due to high metal content. §REF§(Wood ed. 1998, 407)§REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No Greek, Roman or Other coins currently present on chronocarto database until 250-175 BCE period. §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Foreign coins in circulation due to payments made to Celtic mercenaries who fought for Carthage, Greece and Rome. Particularly large and diverse hoard found in Moravia. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 85)§REF§ No Greek, Roman or Other coins currently present on chronocarto database until 250-175 BCE period. §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Foreign coins in circulation due to payments made to Celtic mercenaries who fought for Carthage, Greece and Rome. Particularly large and diverse hoard found in Moravia. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 85)§REF§ Mainly Greek and Roman. §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 71, "polity": null, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Before the early nineteenth century the Royal Mint's role was largely domestic. Britain's North American colonies had gained the right to issue their own coinage ... while in South Asia the East India Company had been allowed since the late seventeeth century to 'purchase' permission from local Indian rulers to reproduce coins that followed India as opposed to English conventions.\"§REF§(Stockwell 2018, 45-46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.§REF§ \"domestic British coin became increasingly an 'imperial currency', circulating throughout much of the Empire. ... in the course of the nineteeth century, the Mint began producing a variety of dedicated colonial as well as other foreign coinages, designated 'private' by the Mint, and paid for by the overseas customers. From 1883 the Treasury encouraged all colonies to obtain their local currencies from the Mint.\"§REF§(Stockwell 2018, 46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sarbah mentions foreign coinage, but it is not quite clear whether this was used extensively by Europeans when trading with Akan partners: ‘Following the early voyages already mentioned, a royal chartered company, formed in 1618, founded the first British settlement in Gold Coast at Kromantin. In 1662 a second company was formed, and during its existence De Ruyter, the famous Dutch admiral, took the British fort at Kromantin, but was repulsed when he attacked the castle of Cape Coast. This Anglo-African company not only exported woolen and other English goods to the value of about £75,000 a year, but it also supplied a large number of slaves to the American plantations, and the slave trade became so lucrative that, although slaves were sold at a very fair price, credit of £100,000 and upwards was often given to the planters until they could conveniently pay. It was therefore to the great advantage of these European traders to foster dissension and disunion among the Africans, to instigate them to constant hostilities, and to encourage raiding expeditions, so as to keep up the supply of war captives and other prisoners for sale. Seeing that the company imported not only a great quantity of ivory, camwood, and much gold dust, but that they also, in the reign of James II., frequently coined at a time from thirty to forty thousand guineas bearing the image of an elephant, the accursed slave trade could not be justified. This company was succeeded by the Royal African Company of England in 1672, which steadily fostered and extended British interest along the coast; but on the abolition of its exclusive privileges, it was finally dissolved in 1752, when a trading corporation was created. The membership of this, however, was open to all British traders on payment of a fee of two pounds. The statutes 23 George II. c. 31 and 25 George II. c. 40, which created the new company of merchants trading to Africa, also authorized Parliament to subsidize it every year; this was done up to the year 1821, when by statute 1 & 2 George IV. c. 28 it was dissolved, and all its possessions became vested in the Crown as a portion of the West African [Page 77] settlements, the seat of government being then at Sierra Leone.’ §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 76p§REF§ We have provisionally assumed European currencies to not be in widespread use in Akan-European trade relations. This is open to re-evaluation." }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit' 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' were used, not 'No media of exchange or money' or 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'." }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Epigraphic evidence from many regions of the island and archeological finds attest to the use of monetary values from at least the turn of the 6th century. The first coins to be used were the Aiginetans as result of the close relations between Aigina and the Cretan city of Kydonia (West Crete). §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 247-68.§REF§" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Samian and Aiginetian coinage. §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 247-68.§REF§" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Coins issued by the Byzantine Empire. §REF§Morrisson, C. 2002. \"Byzantine money: its production and circulation\" in Laiou, A. E. (ed.), <i>The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seven Thought the Fifteen Century</i>, Washington, 909-966§REF§ §REF§Grierson, P. 1999. <i>Byzantine Coinage</i>, Washington.§REF§" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Epigraphic evidence from many regions of the island and archeological finds attest to the use of monetary values from at least the turn of the 6th century. The first coins to be used were the Aiginetans as result of the close relations between Aigina and the Cretan city of Kydonia (West Crete) §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 247-68.§REF§" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Foreign coins found in the island are Ptolemaic series issued in the 3rd century BCE, Hellenistic coins of Athens, coins from the Aegean islands, the cities of mainland Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Syria, Cyrenaica, and Carthage. §REF§Le Ride, G. 1966. <i>Monnaies Crétoises du Ve au Ier Sicècle av. J.-C.</i> (Études Crétoises XV), Paris, 265-67.§REF§" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Needless to say, there was no money (in Diamond's words, no \"abstract, intrinsically valueless medium for appropriating surplus, storing value, and deferring payment or delaying exchange\") in precontact Hawai'i'.§REF§(Trask 1983, 99) Haunani-Kay Trask. 1983. 'Cultures in Collision: Hawai'i and England, 1778'. <i>Pacific Studies</i> 7 (1): 91-117.§REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Needless to say, there was no money (in Diamond's words, no \"abstract, intrinsically valueless medium for appropriating surplus, storing value, and deferring payment or delaying exchange\") in precontact Hawai'i'.§REF§(Trask 1983, 99) Haunani-Kay Trask. 1983. 'Cultures in Collision: Hawai'i and England, 1778'. <i>Pacific Studies</i> 7 (1): 91-117.§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Needless to say, there was no money (in Diamond's words, no \"abstract, intrinsically valueless medium for appropriating surplus, storing value, and deferring payment or delaying exchange\") in precontact Hawai'i'.§REF§(Trask 1983, 99) Haunani-Kay Trask. 1983. 'Cultures in Collision: Hawai'i and England, 1778'. <i>Pacific Studies</i> 7 (1): 91-117.§REF§" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', 'No media of exchange or money' or 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. The trade economy was monetized during the Brooke Raj and colonial periods only, with the associated introduction of cash crops: ‘Another factor that appears to have been favourably regarded by the Iban, as well as other indigenous groups, was the opportunities that trade offered in acquiring a reserve capital and various prestige items. Trade, which was part of the rationale for pacification, was concerned in Iban areas with jungle produce like rattan and wild rubber which were shipped down-river in return for a counter-stream of items like salt, steel, iron, brass wire and gongs, crockery ware and the highly valued sacred jars of Chinese origin. After this trade had reached some bulk in the 1870's and until the introduction of cultivated rubber it provided around thirty per cent of the state's total exports. Rubber, which started to be grown in considerable quantities in the first decade of this century, became the most important of the small-holder cash-crops for the indigenous peoples. To begin with it was planted by many Iban communities in both the Second and the Third Division, but around the middle or late 1920's non-Christian communities began cutting down their rubber trees. […] Prior to rubber, another cash-crop, coffee, had been grown with some success in the Second Division, notably amongst the Saribas Iban. The overproduction that completely upset the world market in 1897 and the drastic fall in prices, however, put an abrupt end to this endeavour.’ §REF§Wagner, Ulla 1972. “Colonialism And Iban Warfare”, 41§REF§ 'With the rubber boom of 1950 this balance was completely disturbed. In September, 1950 (one year after the period we have just been discussing), Chinese traders were travelling all the rivers of the Baleh region in search of Iban rubber, and the price offered at Rumah Nyala was $1.50 per kati. Accepting an average daily output per worker of 5 katis, in September, 1950, the production of rubber had become a pursuit at least three times more profitable than the production of padi. Hulled rice ( brau ) had risen in price to about $2 per gantang. Under these conditions it is difficult to understand, if one is thinking purely in terms of immediate profit and loss, why farming was not abandoned in favour of full-time rubber production. In the Saribas District of the Second Division, indeed, there was a marked tendency in this direction. At Gansurai, a Dayak long-house on the banks of the Layar River, for example, 6 of the 19 bilek families did not grow any padi during the 1950-51 season, and were relying entirely on imported rice which they were able to purchase with money obtained from the sale of rubber. This was no great difficulty. One of the bilek families of Gansurai, employed 11 Malays on a share-cropping basis, and in April, 1951, with rubber at $1.15 per kati, the monthly income of this family was about $1,400.' §REF§Freeman, Derek 1955. “Iban Agriculture: A Report On The Shifting Cultivation Of Hill Rice By The Iban Of Sarawak”, 106§REF§ We have therefore assumed that most exchanges took the form of barter prior to Brooke Raj rule." }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', 'No media of exchange or money' or 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. The trade economy was monetized during the Brooke Raj and colonial periods, with the associated introduction of cash crops: ‘Another factor that appears to have been favourably regarded by the Iban, as well as other indigenous groups, was the opportunities that trade offered in acquiring a reserve capital and various prestige items. Trade, which was part of the rationale for pacification, was concerned in Iban areas with jungle produce like rattan and wild rubber which were shipped down-river in return for a counter-stream of items like salt, steel, iron, brass wire and gongs, crockery ware and the highly valued sacred jars of Chinese origin. After this trade had reached some bulk in the 1870's and until the introduction of cultivated rubber it provided around thirty per cent of the state's total exports. Rubber, which started to be grown in considerable quantities in the first decade of this century, became the most important of the small-holder cash-crops for the indigenous peoples. To begin with it was planted by many Iban communities in both the Second and the Third Division, but around the middle or late 1920's non-Christian communities began cutting down their rubber trees. […] Prior to rubber, another cash-crop, coffee, had been grown with some success in the Second Division, notably amongst the Saribas Iban. The overproduction that completely upset the world market in 1897 and the drastic fall in prices, however, put an abrupt end to this endeavour.’ §REF§Wagner, Ulla 1972. “Colonialism And Iban Warfare”, 41§REF§ 'With the rubber boom of 1950 this balance was completely disturbed. In September, 1950 (one year after the period we have just been discussing), Chinese traders were travelling all the rivers of the Baleh region in search of Iban rubber, and the price offered at Rumah Nyala was $1.50 per kati. Accepting an average daily output per worker of 5 katis, in September, 1950, the production of rubber had become a pursuit at least three times more profitable than the production of padi. Hulled rice ( brau ) had risen in price to about $2 per gantang. Under these conditions it is difficult to understand, if one is thinking purely in terms of immediate profit and loss, why farming was not abandoned in favour of full-time rubber production. In the Saribas District of the Second Division, indeed, there was a marked tendency in this direction. At Gansurai, a Dayak long-house on the banks of the Layar River, for example, 6 of the 19 bilek families did not grow any padi during the 1950-51 season, and were relying entirely on imported rice which they were able to purchase with money obtained from the sale of rubber. This was no great difficulty. One of the bilek families of Gansurai, employed 11 Malays on a share-cropping basis, and in April, 1951, with rubber at $1.15 per kati, the monthly income of this family was about $1,400.' §REF§Freeman, Derek 1955. “Iban Agriculture: A Report On The Shifting Cultivation Of Hill Rice By The Iban Of Sarawak”, 106§REF§" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Chinese copper coinage. §REF§(Hall in Tarling 1993, 226)§REF§" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest coins known worldwide were minted in Anatolia in the Seventh Century BCE. No coins have been found in the Ancient Near East that date from before the Persian Empire.§REF§Bienkowski/Millard (2000:77-78)§REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Greek and later Roman coinage would have been typical, and the Temple tax (see below) was paid exclusively with Tyrian coins.§REF§Regev (2013:74).§REF§ Two Roman silver denarii have been found with likely allusions to the Hasmoneans, including one marked \"BACCIUS JUDAEAS\"; possibly they were used in trade between Rome and Judea. (Repeatedly referenced in nonacademic discussions, but I have not found the original source.)" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest coins known worldwide were minted in Anatolia in the Seventh Century BCE. No coins have been found in the Ancient Near East that date from before the Persian Empire.§REF§Bienkowski/Millard (2000:77-78)§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Gold and silver coins from Mamluk kingdom, coins from Yemen and Europe. §REF§Digby, S. (1982).The Currency System in The Cambridge Economic History of India Vol.1 c.1200-c.1750. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.99-100.§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " After the introduction of foreign currency, barter was increasingly displaced by monetized exchange, but did not die out completely. Brass objects were particularly valuable. But this process did not predate colonization: ‘One of the significant economic transition brought about by the development of markets in Garo Hills is the gradual change over from barter to money economy.’ §REF§Alam, K. 1995. “Markets Of Garo Hills: An Assessment Of Their Socio-Economic Implications”, 112§REF§ During the colonial and early independence periods, barter trade was gradually displaced by monetized exchange. The coins and bank notes used were of Koch, colonial and national origin. ‘This shows how due to the adoption of permanent cultivation the cash income position from crop sales in Wajadagiri has improved.’ §REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 106§REF§ The Zamindars attempted to tax parts of the A’chik population: ‘In pre-British days the areas adjacent to the present habitat of the Garo were under the Zeminders of Karaibari, Kalumalupara, Habraghat, Mechpara and Sherpore. Garos of the adjoining areas had to struggle constantly with these Zeminders. Whenever the employees of the Zeminders tried to collect taxes or to oppress the Garo in some way or other, they retaliated by coming down to the plains and murdering ryots of the Zeminders. In 1775-76 the Zeminders of Mechpara and Karaibari led expeditions to the hills near about their Zeminderies and subjugated a portion of what is at present the Garo Hills district. The Zeminder of Karaibari appointed Rengtha or Pagla, a Garo as his subordinate.’ §REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 29§REF§ The precise nature of these taxes still need to be established." }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit' is coded as 'Foreign coinage or paper currency' ‘One of the significant economic transition brought about by the development of markets in Garo Hills is the gradual change over from barter to money economy.’ §REF§Alam, K. 1995. “Markets Of Garo Hills: An Assessment Of Their Socio-Economic Implications”, 112§REF§ Cash crops, such as cotton, are sold at local markets. During the colonial and early independence periods, barter trade was gradually displaced by monetized exchange. The coins and bank notes used were of Koch, colonial and national origin. ‘This shows how due to the adoption of permanent cultivation the cash income position from crop sales in Wajadagiri has improved.’ §REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 106§REF§" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Gift-giving and receiving do not rule out other kinds of exchange, but trade in the Rig Vedic context was probably minimal. Barter was the mode of exchange and cattle an important unit of value. The word nishka seems to have meant 'a piece of gold' or 'gold necklace', and there is no indication of the use of coins.\"§REF§Singh, U. (2008) A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Dorling Kindersley: Delhi. p191§REF§" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Foreign_coin", "foreign_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Greek and Persian coinage.§REF§Bandela, Prasanna. Coin Splendour: A Journey Into the Past. Abhinav Publications, 2003. p. 28§REF§" } ] }