Examination System List
A viewset for viewing and editing Examination Systems.
GET /api/sc/examination-systems/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 385, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/examination-systems/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/examination-systems/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention in sources: offices held through election or promotion.§REF§(Viggiano 2013: 67) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3TCVQMYV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3TCVQMYV</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention in sources: offices held through election or promotion.§REF§(Viggiano 2013: 67) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3TCVQMYV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3TCVQMYV</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "the professional bureaucrats of the Muromachi period were hereditary administrators §REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.216§REF§ ‘There was no examination system as in China; rather, the positions were hereditary, limited to the same small group of families.’§REF§Mass, Jeffrey P., and William B. Hauser (eds). 1985.The Bakufu in Japanese History. Stanford University Press.p.60§REF§" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A Chinese-style civil service examination system based on the Confucian classics was also adopted§REF§Mason, Richard Henry Pitt. 1997. A History of Japan: Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing, p.57.§REF§." }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'the examination-based meritocracy of China’s bureaucratic world was not too palatable to the Japanese. This is ironic in view of the prominence of examinations in present-day Japan, but understandable from the perspective of an established elite wishing to safeguard control and stability.'§REF§Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition]p.25§REF§ ' 'bore the honorary title of shinshi, which, strictly speaking, was supposed to be awarded to those who had passed the civil service examination modeled on China's chin shih civil service examination but lacking the prestige of the original and hence rarely taken.'§REF§Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition]p.370§REF§" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§." }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " I have found no evidence of an examination system in the Kamakura period and as bureaucratic posts tended to be granted on a hereditary basis its existence at this time is not likely, there is also a source stating the absence of an examination system in the following Muromachi period. §REF§Mass, Jeffrey P., and William B. Hauser (eds). 1985.The Bakufu in Japanese History. Stanford University Press.p.60§REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'While examinations in China theoretically gave everyone a chance to rise in society, in Japan the university was virtually closed to all but the sons of courtiers. This was because a young man had to hold court rank before he could be appointed to an official post. In effect, all but the very dullest aristocratic sons were assured of bureaucratic office without having to make an effort at the university, though promotion within the bureaucracy depended on diligence and scholarly attainmentsin most cases.§REF§Mason, Richard Henry Pitt. 1997. A History of Japan: Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing.p.57§REF§'the examination-based meritocracy of China’s bureaucratic world was not too palatable to the Japanese. This is ironic in view of the prominence of examinations in present-day Japan, but understandable from the perspective of an established elite wishing to safeguard control and stability.'§REF§Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition]p.25§REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘part of the importance of the Shoheiko [a government training school who’s origins date back to 1630] was that it trained students to pass exams that enabled them to assume government positions.’§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.229.§REF§" }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” dates to the late fifth century CE.§REF§(Steenstrup 1996: 11) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7YDV5KGG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7YDV5KGG</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " this was the code for the Samanid bureaucracy." }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"In general, those who take on these positions(officials) are teh king's relatives. If they are not, they give him a daughter as a concubine as well.\"§REF§(Zhou Daguan 2007, p. 51)§REF§ This reference by Zhou Daguan, suggests that there was no official examination system (RA)." }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Many positions appear to have been hereditary. 'In this country there are ministers, generals, astronomers, and other officials, and, below them, all kinds of minor employees; only their names differ from ours. Mostly princes are designated for [official] positions; in other cases those selected offer their daughters as royal concubine.'§REF§(Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 27)§REF§ 'Administrative officials were classified in four divisions, apparently horizontally arranged, which may have had a geographical basis, but about which little is known (Sahai 1978: 18). At least some administrative posts were hereditary, especially in the Angkorian period. For example, the purohita and the yājaka usually seem to have been hereditary officials and a single family was said to have been in charge of the devarāja cult for a period of 250 years (ibid., 24-25). A number of positions close to the kings (purohita, hotar, guru, ācārya and guṇadośadarśi) are referred to in Angkorian period inscriptions written by officials. These tend to be Sanskrit terms which had religious connotations, but as Vickery (2002: 93) points out, some of these became secular, as in India, and perhaps were so in Cambodia from the start. Researchers are not in agreement on issues such as whether certain roles and titles had to be held by Brahmins, could be held by women or were hereditary (Mabbett 1978: 33; Sahai 1978: 28; Chakravarti 1980: 53).'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"In general, those who take on these positions(officials) are teh king's relatives. If they are not, they give him a daughter as a concubine as well.\"§REF§(Zhou Daguan 2007, p. 51)§REF§ This reference by Zhou Daguan, suggests that there was no official examination system (RA)." }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " there are no references to examination systems in the reviewed literature." }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There are no indications to an examination system in the references reviewed by the RA, but Vickery points out that an important family of Adhyapura provided ministers to five kings, which suggests that the appointment of ministers may not have followed an examination system. §REF§(Vickery 1986, 96)§REF§" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The title pon seems to have been hereditary, probably uncle to nephew, and as the local chiefs gained access to more wealth, the social complexity increased. §REF§(O'reilly 2007, p. 96)§REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There are no indications to an examination system in the references reviewed by the RA, but Vickery points out that an important family of Adhyapura provided ministers to five kings, which suggests that the appointment of ministers may not have followed an examination system. §REF§(Vickery 1986, p. 96)§REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No bureaucracy. The chief of the village \"worked to maintain peace and was the authority in regard to all matters legal or moral, including land ownership, religion, and ceremonies.\"§REF§(Keil 2012, 108) Sarah Keil. Bambara. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In contrast to other medieval societies, the Chinese civilization has distinguished by the high vertical mobility. It was related to the existence in China of the system of tests of positions. This system was adopted by Kitans and, since 988, introduced in Liao. According to the rules established, the examinations were conducted in the volosts, regions and administration of Stationary Office every three years. Those who passed examinations in volosts were called hsiang-chien, in the region - fu-chieh and in the administration of Stationary Office - chiti (LS 12: 4a; Wittfogel, Feng 1949: 454-455, 491).\" §REF§(Kradin 2014, 157-158)§REF§" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Mongols initially stopped the examinations to enter the Chinese bureaucracy. These were revived in 1315 although they were not used in other parts of the empire. §REF§David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd ed. 2007), p.97.§REF§" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Cartier 1979)§REF§" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not enough data, though it seems reasonable to infer absence." }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Family connections used to obtain positions. \"The Kalmyk and Zünghar confederations were similar in many ways. Both were divided into tribes (AIMAG), which themselves were conglomerations of exogamous yasun (bones, or patrilineages). The khan or khung-taiji was assisted by an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, variously called ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis; see JARGHUCHI), or zaisangs (from Chinese zaixiang, grand councillor). These were commoner retainers of the ruler’s tribe. The Zünghar ruler GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727-45) expanded the council by adding six zarghuchis to assist the four tüshimed.The people were assigned to appanages (ulus or anggi) controlled by a nobility (noyod or taiji; see NOYAN) of the tribes’ particular ruling “bones.” Below the noyods were the tabunangs, or sons-in-law or those who had married women of the noyod lineages. The positions of “four ministers,” or “judges,” were restricted to such tabunangs of the ruler. Below them were minor functionaries: standard bearers, trumpeters, aides-de-camp (kiya), and so on.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 421)§REF§" } ] }