Examination System List
A viewset for viewing and editing Examination Systems.
GET /api/sc/examination-systems/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 385, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/examination-systems/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/examination-systems/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Scribal training and literacy was very important. §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not encountered any reference to an examination system." }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Promotion in the aristocracy seemed to be through military service or inheritance. §REF§(Payne 1973, 271) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. <i>A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1.</i> Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm</a>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " ineage generally. The latter was executive chief, or \"chief of talk,\" and the former symbolic chief, or \"chief of food.\" Food presentations were made to the symbolic chief. Sometimes the symbolic and executive functions fell to the same individual; often they did not. The symbolic chief was surrounded by his lineage brothers and by his sons, who acted as his agents. These followers and his sisters and daughters were of chiefly rank, distinct from commoners. Through conquest, a lineage might gain the chiefship in more than one district and establish a junior branch as the chiefly lineage in the conquered district. The now subordinate district rendered food presentations to the superordinate one. Most districts were linked in two rival leagues based on competing schools of magic and ritual relating to war, politics, and rhetoric. A chief's authority derived from two things. His lineage's ownership of the district's space entitled him to presentations of first fruits at stated times of the year. More importantly, it gave him authority over the conservation and use of the district's food resources. His authority also derived from his connection with the sky world, its gods, and their superhuman power to accomplish purposes. There was, therefore, a degree of sacredness associated with chiefs.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information found in sources so far." }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In theory university qualifications were required for many top posts in government." }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " through university examinations" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " University required examinations?<br>Department of Chancery hired university trained bureaucrats.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 68)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory.§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>.§REF§ One official position that first appeared in this period was the <i>missus dominicus</i> (king's representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king's decrees.§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>.§REF§ However, it is not clear how this or other administrative positions were obtained." }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In other words, being literate was sufficient." }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " through the universities" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Omanhene was chosen from royal lineages and assisted by multiple officials: 'The several Akan peoples each consist of a single kingdom ruled by a king, OMANHENE (lit. \"state-chief\"). The king comes from whatever clan provides the royal line in a particular kingdom, and is chosen in rotation from one of this clan's kingly lineages (there are often other, non-kingly, lineages within a royal clan). He is elected by various officials, of which the most important is the OHEMMAA (or similar terms; lit. \"woman-chief\" and usually translated in the literature as \"queen-mother\") although she is typically not the actual mother but a senior woman of the clan, who \"knows\" genealogy and may have her own court and be assisted by various officials. Criteria for the selection of a king include assumed competence, general personality, and the fact that kingly lines usually rotate in providing the king. Once selected, the king is \"enstooled\"-that is, seated upon the stool of kingship. His former status is annulled symbolically, his debts and lawsuits are settled, his clothing and personal possessions st ored; he is then symbolically reborn and given the identity of one of his forebears. He assumes the royal name and title borne by that previous ruler. A king has his palace, in which work members of his court. Details vary considerably, but, in general, the royal officials comprise several categories: those from the royal clan itself; those representing the remainder of the people; and ritual officials, drummers, and others who were considered the \"children\" of the king, being recruited from many sources, including royal slaves, and often observing patrilineal descent. The king is a sacred person. He may not be observed eating or drinking and may not be heard to speak nor be spoken to publicly (speaking only through a spokesman or \"linguist,\" OKYEAME). He is covered from the sky by a royal umbrella, avoids contact with the earth by wearing royal sandals, and wears insignia of gold and elaborate and beautiful cloth of royal design. In the past, an Akan king held power over the life and death of his subjects and slaves. These powers were eroded during colonial rule, but today an Akan king remains extremely powerful, representing his people both politically an d ritually and acting as a focus for the identity of his kingdom. By far the most powerful is the king of Ashanti, who has the largest of all the Akan kingdoms, the Asantehene at Kumasi.' §REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan§REF§ Councillors aided the Omanhene in judicial matters, but there was no formalized system of examination or merit promotion for them: 'But as a man attracts the favourable attention of the observant ones of his tribe, as he more and more impresses the people by his ability in their public gatherings, by the soundness of his opinion, by the depth of his knowledge of the customary laws and traditions, by his skill in public debate, by his keen interest in public affairs, by his bravery or warlike qualities, or by some other qualifications, he acquires public influence, and is accepted, in a greater or less degree, as a public man, representative of a portion of the community. Success in trade, or other personal attributes, are likewise qualifications for this post. The position of such a person is definitely confirmed when the head ruler with his council invites him to be a councillor. Attending an Omanhene or Ohene are always to be found some councillors, who assist him in hearing and determining lawsuits and administering justice. In the town of the [Page 11] Omanhene these men perform many of the duties of officers, who in European countries are known as ministers of state. It is worthy of note that, as a general rule, a Tufuhene is not a member of the Council (Begwa) of the Ohene or Omanhene.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 10p§REF§" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The sources on the administrative structure of Kumasi and Greater Ashante are silent on formal examinations. Some foreigners were employed in highly specialized roles: 'A form of treasury partly staffed by literate Muslims was created. Groups within the capital began to build up expertise in particular areas of administration and to concentrate on this as a way to power and wealth. Careers began to open for those with intelligence, negotiating skill and a steady nerve.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 17§REF§ Given that their most important qualification seems to have been the command of foreign writing systems, they were probably not examined in a standardized manner by Ashanti superiors. Arhin's more conservative view of the emerging Ashanti administration (as compared to Wilks') seems to confirm this: 'But the household ( gyase) organization was bureaucratic only in the sense that the component units were assigned definite tasks around the King's person and at court. It was not a bureaucratic organization of the type associated with modern states, but patrimonialistic, an instrument of the extension of the King's personal authority.' (Yarak, 1983, 1984).' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1986. “Asante Praise Poems: The Ideology Of Patrimonialism”, 165§REF§" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from discussion in sources of development/introduction in later periods" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from discussion of sources of development/introduction in later periods" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The White Rajahs themselves have been characterized as 'benevolent autocrats' and were accordingly not formally examined as such: 'Sir Charles Anthony Johnson Brooke (b. June 3, 1829, Berrow, Somerset, Eng.-d. May 17, 1917, Cirencester, Gloucestershire), who adopted the surname Brooke, became the second raja. The government of Charles Brooke has been described as a benevolent autocracy. Charles himself had spent much of his life among the Iban people of Sarawak, knew their language, and respected their beliefs and customs. He made extensive use of down-river Malay chiefs as administrators, and encouraged selective immigration of Chinese agriculturalists, while the dominant indigenous group, the Ibans, were employed in military service. In general, social and economic changes were limited in impact, shielding the inhabitants from both the benefits and the hardships of Western-style development.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ But the administrators employed in their developing bureaucracy probably were: 'Sir Charles Vyner de Windt Brooke (b. Sept. 26, 1874, London-d. May 9, 1963, London) was the third and last “white raja” (1917-46). He joined the Sarawak administration in 1897. After World War I, a boom in rubber and oil drew Sarawak further into the world economy, and for that and other reasons the state embarked on gradual modernization of its institutions. Public services were developed, a Sarawak penal code modelled on that of British India was introduced in 1924, and there was some extension of educational opportunity.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ The regional-level positions introduced for the Iban specifically were subject to appointment or election, not examination: 'The appointment to Penghulu is salaried. Before the Japanese occupation it was made by the government for life; Penghulus are now appointed for a limited period (of five years) on the basis of a local election. Although the office is not hereditary, it is not uncommon for the Penghulu to be succeeded by his son or other relative. This is especially true when a Penghulu has been conspicuously successful in office. Since profound knowledge of customary law and precedent, respected judgement, and wide acquaintance with the area administered are prerequisites, the son, son-in-law, or other close relative of a retiring Penghulu is considered more likely to possess these than any other person. The tendency is, therefore, to look first for suitable candidates among the Penghulu's immediate relatives, and only if these are found wanting, to seek elsewhere. Where a particular Penghulu has lost public respect, a rival leader for the area may evolve, and he naturally becomes a strong candidate for the succession.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 23§REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Village-level leaders such as headmen or elders were not subject to examination, but chosen locally even in the post-colonial period: ‘After Playfair, we get some accounts on the institution of nokma by Robbins Burling (1963), D.N. Majumdar (1966), C. Nakane (1967). Burling mentioned about the mode of succession to the office of a nokma who looks for a nephew, a young man from his own lineage and preferably from his own village, who will become his son-in-law and an official heir. Burling also pointed out, the lands of the nokma is identifiable in terms of his possession of title to village land (a’King). When a nokma owns such a piece of land, he is referred to as a’King nokma. The nokmas were not supposed to sell a’King land without consulting the villagers and that too never to an outsider.’ §REF§Chakrabarti, S. B., and G. Baruah 1995. “Institution Of Nokmaship In Garo Hills: Some Observations”, 76§REF§ Regional officials associated with the British system, such as laskars and sordars, were not formally examined either: ‘Many of the disputes of the Garos decided in their village Panchayats. When a man has some complaints against another he reports them to the Nokma or the village-head. If the nature of the complaints is simple, the Nokma in a meeting of the few leading persons of the village, decides the dispute; but if the nature of the complaints is complicated and not easy of solution the Nokma reports the matter to the Laskar. The Laskar is a very important and influential man in the Garo Hills District. The hills areas are divided into some elekas and each of such elekas is placed under a Laskar for convenient collection of the house tax as well as for deciding the disputes of small nature locally. The Laskar need not essentially be a literate man, worldly prudence is enough for the management of his eleka. In practice a Laskar wields immense influence in his eleka.’ §REF§Choudhury, Bhupendranath 1958. “Some Cultural And Linguistic Aspects Of The Garos”, 40§REF§ ‘The loskor has several duties. He collects the house tax within his district, keeping a fixed portion of this as his own payment, and he organizes work parties to keep the roads open. His most important duty, however, is to supervise and try to settle legal disputes. The loskor sometimes appoints one or more assistants called sordars, to whom the District Council pays an annual stipend of 100 Rupees, together with a shirt and a pair of short pants. Saljing, who lived in Rengsanggri, was a sordar; but not every village had one, and a sordar does not have jurisdiction over a particular village. As a general assistant to the loskor he may assist in collecting information about a dispute, and in petty matters a sordar may sit as representative of the loskor and preside at a trial. The loskorship demands a large part of a man’s time, but a sordar spends most of his time working in his fields like his neighbors.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 245§REF§ The precise structure and geographical extent of Zamindar rule remains to be confirmed. The Zamindars were aristocrats from neighbouring territories attemtping to collect taxes from the local population, and therefore should not be considered bureaucrats. 'Zamindar, in India, a holder or occupier (dār) of land (zamīn). The root words are Persian, and the resulting name was widely used wherever Persian influence was spread by the Mughals or other Indian Muslim dynasties. The meanings attached to it were various. In Bengal the word denoted a hereditary tax collector who could retain 10 percent of the revenue he collected. In the late 18th century the British government made these zamindars landowners, thus creating a landed aristocracy in Bengal and Bihar that lasted until Indian independence (1947). In parts of north India (e.g., Uttar Pradesh), a zamindar denoted a large landowner with full proprietary rights. More generally in north India, zamindar denoted the cultivator of the soil or joint proprietors holding village lands in common as joint heirs. In Maratha territories the name was generally applied to all local hereditary revenue officers.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/zamindar\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/zamindar</a>§REF§ ‘There remains no record of when the Garos migrated and settled in their present habitat. Their traditional lore as recorded by Major Playfair points out that they migrated to the area from Tibet. There is evidence that the area was inhabited by the stone-using peoples-Palaeolithic and Neolithic groups-in the past. After settling in the hills, Garos initially had no close and constant contact with the inhabitants of the adjoining plains. In 1775-76 the Zamindars of Mechpara and Karaibari (at present in the Goalpara and Dhubri districts of Assam) led expeditions onto the Garo hills.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ ‘In pre-British days the areas adjacent to the present habitat of the Garo were under the Zeminders of Karaibari, Kalumalupara, Habraghat, Mechpara and Sherpore. Garos of the adjoining areas had to struggle constantly with these Zeminders. Whenever the employees of the Zeminders tried to collect taxes or to oppress the Garo in some way or other, they retaliated by coming down to the plains and murdering ryots of the Zeminders. In 1775-76 the Zeminders of Mechpara and Karaibari led expeditions to the hills near about their Zeminderies and subjugated a portion of what is at present the Garo Hills district. The Zeminder of Karaibari appointed Rengtha or Pagla, a Garo as his subordinate.’ §REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 29§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Village-level leaders such as headmen or elders were not subject to examination by the district executives, but chosen locally: ‘After Playfair, we get some accounts on the institution of nokma by Robbins Burling (1963), D.N. Majumdar (1966), C. Nakane (1967). Burling mentioned about the mode of succession to the office of a nokma who looks for a nephew, a young man from his own lineage and preferably from his own village, who will become his son-in-law and an official heir. Burling also pointed out, the lands of the nokma is identifiable in terms of his possession of title to village land (a’King). When a nokma owns such a piece of land, he is referred to as a’King nokma. The nokmas were not supposed to sell a’King land without consulting the villagers and that too never to an outsider. Burling also mentioned about the laskar who is selected by the nokmas. The laskar collects the house tax and tries to settle disputes within the jurisdiction of his operation following the customary rules of the community. Majumdar (1966) mentioned that about 60 laskarships were found in the whole area of his study. He mentioned that the nokmas and the sirdars were under the laskars. A’King nokma is the man who identifies the woman for inheriting the land. This land belongs to a particular clan ( machong). According to Majumdar, a nokma was also expected to report about the unnatural death to a laskar in addition to his role for deciding minor disputes within his a’King.’ §REF§Chakrabarti, S. B., and G. Baruah 1995. “Institution Of Nokmaship In Garo Hills: Some Observations”, 76§REF§ Regional officials such as laskars and sordars were not formally examined either: ‘Many of the disputes of the Garos decided in their village Panchayats. When a man has some complaints against another he reports them to the Nokma or the village-head. If the nature of the complaints is simple, the Nokma in a meeting of the few leading persons of the village, decides the dispute; but if the nature of the complaints is complicated and not easy of solution the Nokma reports the matter to the Laskar. The Laskar is a very important and influential man in the Garo Hills District. The hills areas are divided into some elekas and each of such elekas is placed under a Laskar for convenient collection of the house tax as well as for deciding the disputes of small nature locally. The Laskar need not essentially be a literate man, worldly prudence is enough for the management of his eleka. In practice a Laskar wields immense influence in his eleka.’ §REF§Choudhury, Bhupendranath 1958. “Some Cultural And Linguistic Aspects Of The Garos”, 40§REF§ ‘The loskor has several duties. He collects the house tax within his district, keeping a fixed portion of this as his own payment, and he organizes work parties to keep the roads open. His most important duty, however, is to supervise and try to settle legal disputes. The loskor sometimes appoints one or more assistants called sordars, to whom the District Council pays an annual stipend of 100 Rupees, together with a shirt and a pair of short pants. Saljing, who lived in Rengsanggri, was a sordar; but not every village had one, and a sordar does not have jurisdiction over a particular village. As a general assistant to the loskor he may assist in collecting information about a dispute, and in petty matters a sordar may sit as representative of the loskor and preside at a trial. The loskorship demands a large part of a man’s time, but a sordar spends most of his time working in his fields like his neighbors.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 245§REF§ Judges employed at government courts functioned on a higher administrative level than the native village councils and were solely dependent on the colonial or independent Indian district executive. The provisions for judges and other higher-ups are unclear from the sources, but a state salary with appropriate formal examination seems most likely: ‘The judicial officers (who preside over those courts) are appointed by, or with the approval of the Governor. The rules as to administration of justice do not contain specific provisions as to their tenure and salary, or as to their full time or part time character. But most of these matters will be regulated as rules or orders issued under Rule 15 of the Assam Autonomous Districts (Constitution of District Councils) Rules, 1951. It may be of interest to note that there is a specific prohibition against a member of the Executive Committee being appointed to these courts. To this extent, their independence is protected. A legal practitioner can appear before these courts. But in cases where an accused is not arrested, the legal practitioner takes the permission of the District Council Court for such appearance.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 62§REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Initially, office holders were appointed directly by the king, but hereditary office holding become common, in some areas attached to the land grants awarded with the office. §REF§Gupta, Dipankar. \"From Varna to Jati: The Indian caste system, from the Asiatic to the feudal mode of production.\" Journal of Contemporary Asia 10, no. 3 (1980 ) p.260.§REF§" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Persian was needed to enter the administrative service. Hindus learned Persian in school in order to qualify. §REF§Asher, Catherine B., and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.140§REF§" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Examination_system", "examination_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }