Court List
A viewset for viewing and editing Courts.
GET /api/sc/courts/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 435, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/courts/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/courts/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The traditional Roman courts rendered justice within their respective jurisdictions. The provincial courts and governors toiled in Gaul, Pannonia, Dalmatia, indeed wherever Ostrogothic rule had peacefully supplanted the Roman emperors.\" §REF§(Burns 1991, 171-172)§REF§ \"provincial iudices heard Gothic cases and decided them on the basis of custom and the edicta of Theodoric and his successors.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 172)§REF§ Members of Senate appointed to act as judges in courts §REF§(Bradley 2005, 157)§REF§ In cases involving Goths and Romans, there were two judges, one Count of the Goth and one Roman judge §REF§(Bradley 2005, 169)§REF§" }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Public court known as placita. \"Pierre Toubert definitively analysed the structure of the Roman placitum up to 1080, taking the story on in less detail up to 1200, in a hundred pages of Les structures du Latium médiéval.\" §REF§(Wickham 2015, 386-387) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"This sort of assembly politics was typical of early medieval Europe, and was regularized by the Carolingians; it was doubtless indeed the Carolingians who extended it to Rome, for Roman practices are so close to those of Carolingian northern Italy. By the eleventh century, such placita were rare in the Frankish world, but south of the Alps they were regular in most regions until the second half of the century. Rome fits this Italian pattern, then, although, as already noted, there are indications that placita were held even more often in Rome than they were in each county further north. It was clearly easy for Roman judges and aristocrats to come together frequently, and the more often they did so the more solid their political aggregation.\"§REF§(Wickham 2015, 388-389) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>It is unclear when it developed, but by long-standing custom, popes held a council in Rome itself during Lent to settle any ecclesiastical business (land disputes, lawsuits over rights, quarrels between bishops and their parish churches, etc.). In the late eleventh century, this system was expanded with another seasonal council held in November for the same purpose.§REF§Southern, 145-47§REF§" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Public court known as placita. \"Pierre Toubert definitively analysed the structure of the Roman placitum up to 1080, taking the story on in less detail up to 1200, in a hundred pages of Les structures du Latium médiéval.\" §REF§(Wickham 2015, 386-387) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"This sort of assembly politics was typical of early medieval Europe, and was regularized by the Carolingians; it was doubtless indeed the Carolingians who extended it to Rome, for Roman practices are so close to those of Carolingian northern Italy. By the eleventh century, such placita were rare in the Frankish world, but south of the Alps they were regular in most regions until the second half of the century. Rome fits this Italian pattern, then, although, as already noted, there are indications that placita were held even more often in Rome than they were in each county further north. It was clearly easy for Roman judges and aristocrats to come together frequently, and the more often they did so the more solid their political aggregation.\"§REF§(Wickham 2015, 388-389) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>In 1357 CE papal legate Cardinal Albornoz introduced the Constitutions of the Holy Mother Church (Constitutiones aegidianae). This public law code remained effective until Napoleon. The laws regulated the Papal-commune relationship, and codified the status of papal courts, which had been competing with rival authorities in the states. §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004, 854)§REF§ Appellate courts. §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004, 853)§REF§ Pope Gregory IX's decretal <i>Ille humani generis\" established a more formalized inquisitorial process in 1231.§REF§Reprinted in Peters, 196§REF§</i>" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Courts of various kinds functioned through the State, with voluminous surviving trial records.§REF§Lowe, 195§REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " During the Roman Dominate administration of justice was \"thoroughly bureaucratized\" and \"regular courts, special courts were established to deal with particular matters and categories of persons.\" §REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 161)§REF§ Before this time there was no specialised court building. Courts could be held in the basilicas§REF§(Berger 1968, 742)§REF§ (introduced by the 3rd Century BCE§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§) where a provincial governor could an hold audience or in the Roman forum. Basilicas were multi-purpose buildings a place for banking and money-changing and town hall activities. The forum was a multi-purpose building which had existed since the Roman Kingdom." }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"The criminal law owed much to the reforms of two past lawgivers, the proto-emperor, L. Cornelius Sulla (dictator and consul, 81-80 BC), and the emperor Augustus. Sulla established a number of courts (quaestiones) to try various criminal offences, such as murder and poisoning (or use of charms), or forgery; in the statutes he would have defined the crime and the penalty. In other areas of criminal law, the framework supplied for later developments by the Leges Iuliae, the legislation of Augustus, predominates, with whole sections of the imperial law-codes devoted to imperial enactments relevant to the Julian laws on adulteries, corrupt solicitation (ambitus), extortion (repetundae), treason (maiestas) and on violence).\"§REF§(Harries 2001, 12) Harries, Jill. 2001. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"As jury-courts fell out of use under the Early Empire, to be replaced by hearings before a single magistrate or judge, the courts established by the criminal statutes ceased to operate, but the statues themselves remained, as they specified offence and punishment. People prosecuted for murder, poisoning, or other relevant offences were still prosecuted under Sulla's law and liable to its penalties.\"§REF§(Harries 2001, 12) Harries, Jill. 2001. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ <i>Note (DH): the quaestiones were a sort of ad-hoc special tribunal - it refers to the section of law that the case was under, not an actual building, so 'court' is a bit of a stretch on the translation in the quote. Trials were still held basically wherever there was space -- bassilicae, fora, etc.</i><br>During the Roman Dominate administration of justice was \"thoroughly bureaucratized\" and \"regular courts, special courts were established to deal with particular matters and categories of persons.\" §REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 161)§REF§ Before this time there was no specialised court building. Courts could be held in the basilicas§REF§(Berger 1968, 742)§REF§ (introduced by the 3rd Century BCE§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§) where a provincial governor could an hold audience or in the Roman forum. Basilicas were multi-purpose buildings a place for banking and money-changing and town hall activities. The forum was a multi-purpose building which had existed since the Roman Kingdom." }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " During the Roman Dominate administration of justice was \"thoroughly bureaucratized\" and \"regular courts, special courts were established to deal with particular matters and categories of persons.\" §REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 161)§REF§ Before this time there was no specialised court building. Courts could be held in the basilicas§REF§(Berger 1968, 742)§REF§ (introduced by the 3rd Century BCE§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§) where a provincial governor could an hold audience or in the Roman forum. Basilicas were multi-purpose buildings a place for banking and money-changing and town hall activities. The forum was a multi-purpose building which had existed since the Roman Kingdom." }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"The criminal law owed much to the reforms of two past lawgivers, the proto-emperor, L. Cornelius Sulla (dictator and consul, 81-80 BC), and the emperor Augustus. Sulla established a number of courts (quaestiones) to try various criminal offences, such as murder and poisoning (or use of charms), or forgery; in the statutes he would have defined the crime and the penalty. In other areas of criminal law, the framework supplied for later developments by the Leges Iuliae, the legislation of Augustus, predominates, with whole sections of the imperial law-codes devoted to imperial enactments relevant to the Julian laws on adulteries, corrupt solicitation (ambitus), extortion (repetundae), treason (maiestas) and on violence).\"§REF§(Harries 2001, 12) Harries, Jill. 2001. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"As jury-courts fell out of use under the Early Empire, to be replaced by hearings before a single magistrate or judge, the courts established by the criminal statutes ceased to operate, but the statues themselves remained, as they specified offence and punishment. People prosecuted for murder, poisoning, or other relevant offences were still prosecuted under Sulla's law and liable to its penalties.\"§REF§(Harries 2001, 12) Harries, Jill. 2001. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ <i>Note (DH): the quaestiones were a sort of ad-hoc special tribunal - it refers to the section of law that the case was under, not an actual building, so 'court' is a bit of a stretch on the translation in the quote. Trials were still held basically wherever there was space -- bassilicae, fora, etc.</i><br>During the Roman Dominate administration of justice was \"thoroughly bureaucratized\" and \"regular courts, special courts were established to deal with particular matters and categories of persons.\" §REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 161)§REF§ Before this time there was no specialised court building. Courts could be held in the basilicas§REF§(Berger 1968, 742)§REF§ (introduced by the 3rd Century BCE§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§) where a provincial governor could an hold audience or in the Roman forum. Basilicas were multi-purpose buildings a place for banking and money-changing and town hall activities. The forum was a multi-purpose building which had existed since the Roman Kingdom." }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " During the Roman Dominate administration of justice was \"thoroughly bureaucratized\" and \"regular courts, special courts were established to deal with particular matters and categories of persons.\" §REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 161) Mousourakis, G. 2007. A Legal History of Rome, Routledge.§REF§ Before this time there was no specialised court building. Courts could be held in the basilicas§REF§(Berger 1968, 742) Berger, A. 1968. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, Volume 43, American Philosophical Society.§REF§ (introduced by the 3rd Century BCE§REF§(Stearns 2001) Stearns, P. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History. 6th Edition. James Clarke & Co Ltd. Cambridge.§REF§) where a provincial governor could an hold audience or in the Roman forum. Basilicas were multi-purpose buildings a place for banking and money-changing and town hall activities. The forum was a multi-purpose building which had existed since the Roman Kingdom." }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Rome had its own magistracy. §REF§(Trevor, 1869, 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the Courts of Justice the Podesta or one of his three assessors merely presided; the did not constitute the Court, which was composed of citizens.\"§REF§(? 1902, 263) ?. Chapter VIII. Venice. A W Ward. G W Prothero. Stanley Leathes. eds. 1902. The Cambridge Modern History. Volume I. The Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the Courts of Justice the Podesta or one of his three assessors merely presided; the did not constitute the Court, which was composed of citizens.\"§REF§(? 1902, 263) ?. Chapter VIII. Venice. A W Ward. G W Prothero. Stanley Leathes. eds. 1902. The Cambridge Modern History. Volume I. The Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " I have yet to find definitive evidence in this period but as courts were present in the proceeding and succeeding periods it is likely they were present in the Muromachi period." }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned by sources." }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'In 1232, the Council of State promulgated the Joei Code (Joei shikimoku), a 51-article legal code that articulated Hojo judicial and legislative practices and the conduct of the military government in administering the country. In 1249, a judicial court (hikitsuke) was established to further refine the legal process.' §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.5.§REF§ ‘Thus, the three tokusei agents, together with the Muto and Otomo families and Adachi Morimune, came to form a three-unit judicial structure in which each unit was responsible for judging cases from three provinces each. This court was housed in a building in Hakata,21 and this office served as the governmental organ responsible for enforcing tokusei measures as well as delivering judicial decisions.’ §REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.149§REF§" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned by sources." }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'A supreme court (hydjosho) staffed by daimyo and bannermen members of the shogun's upper administration was established in Edo Castle in 1722.' §REF§Hall, John Whitney (ed.). 1991.The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.p.161§REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The purchase of milk [private property] was registered in the offices of the qadi (judge) through the issue of a wathiqa (legal deed) and was a secure form of property protected by the law.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 147) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " unknown for previous polity." }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'As in the rest of the Indic world, the Angkor state and empire were government by rules laid down in the Code of Manu, a great compendium of Brahmanic law probably composed around the 4th century BC. [...] Every judicial act was theoretically inscribed on stone as well as on plaques of gold, silver or copper. The Khmer king was the defender of the law and order in Cambodia. His law courts, present on every administrative level right down tot he village, instituted criminal proceedings against transgressors and guaranteed the integrity of landholdings and the settling of boundary problems. Not even religious institutions such as temples were immune, sine they as well as private individuals could be sued over land.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 144)§REF§" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'As in the rest of the Indic world, the Angkor state and empire were government by rules laid down in the Code of Manu, a great compendium of Brahmanic law probably composed around the 4th century BC. [...] Every judicial act was theoretically inscribed on stone as well as on plaques of gold, silver or copper. The Khmer king was the defender of the law and order in Cambodia. His law courts, present on every administrative level right down tot he village, instituted criminal proceedings against transgressors and guaranteed the integrity of landholdings and the settling of boundary problems. Not even religious institutions such as temples were immune, sine they as well as private individuals could be sued over land.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 144)§REF§" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'As in the rest of the Indic world, the Angkor state and empire were government by rules laid down in the Code of Manu, a great compendium of Brahmanic law probably composed around the 4th century BC. [...] Every judicial act was theoretically inscribed on stone as well as on plaques of gold, silver or copper. The Khmer king was the defender of the law and order in Cambodia. His law courts, present on every administrative level right down tot he village, instituted criminal proceedings against transgressors and guaranteed the integrity of landholdings and the settling of boundary problems. Not even religious institutions such as temples were immune, sine they as well as private individuals could be sued over land.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 144)§REF§ 'Below all of this ponderous bureaucracy were the free people of the land, free in the sense that they enjoyed basic civil rights, and could settle wherever they wished. Nonetheless, the obligations of this largely rice-farming class were heavy; the entire able-bodied population between the ages of 20 and 50 owed up to 90 days of core labour annually. Those outside these age limits were called up for only light labour. Exempt from corvee were the monks, Brahmins, the Brah Van, the mandarins and their servants, and all employees of the king. There was no escaping this core, since all males were inscribed by name on census registers that were revised every three years under supervision of the roving commission. At this point, every person would also choose a particular mandarin or even high official in the capital as his patron. With this personage, who was not necessarily connected with the client's territory, there were mutual obligations: the client owed the patron deference, and respect, services, occasional labour, and the usual small gifts, while the latter gave aid and protection (even legal) to the freeman and accommodation when he had to travel to the capital. It was this system through which corvees were mustered, and foot soldiers called up for Cambodia's many wars.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 218)§REF§" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'As in the rest of the Indic world, the Angkor state and empire were government by rules laid down in the Code of Manu, a great compendium of Brahmanic law probably composed around the 4th century BC. [...] Every judicial act was theoretically inscribed on stone as well as on plaques of gold, silver or copper. The Khmer king was the defender of the law and order in Cambodia. His law courts, present on every administrative level right down tot he village, instituted criminal proceedings against transgressors and guaranteed the integrity of landholdings and the settling of boundary problems. Not even religious institutions such as temples were immune, sine they as well as private individuals could be sued over land.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 144)§REF§ 'Below all of this ponderous bureaucracy were the free people of the land, free in the sense that they enjoyed basic civil rights, and could settle wherever they wished. Nonetheless, the obligations of this largely rice-farming class were heavy; the entire able-bodied population between the ages of 20 and 50 owed up to 90 days of core labour annually. Those outside these age limits were called up for only light labour. Exempt from corvee were the monks, Brahmins, the Brah Van, the mandarins and their servants, and all employees of the king. There was no escaping this core, since all males were inscribed by name on census registers that were revised every three years under supervision of the roving commission. At this point, every person would also choose a particular mandarin or even high official in the capital as his patron. With this personage, who was not necessarily connected with the client's territory, there were mutual obligations: the client owed the patron deference, and respect, services, occasional labour, and the usual small gifts, while the latter gave aid and protection (even legal) to the freeman and accommodation when he had to travel to the capital. It was this system through which corvees were mustered, and foot soldiers called up for Cambodia's many wars.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 218)§REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The best known was entered at Ishanapura [...], just east of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap) in Cambodia, where a dynasty of kings is recorded in inscriptions (Vickery 1998). These rulers progressively adopted the characteristics of fully-fledged states, with a central court, splendid temples, water-control measures, and a bureaucracy of office holders.'§REF§(Higham 2013, 586)§REF§This may be more accurate toward the end of the Funan period, but worth noting: \"Before a case reached the king, it might go through various lower courts; inscriptions frequently mention officials who appear to have functions connected with courts of law. There is no way of measuring the extent of discrimination and corruption in the administration of justice. The ideal of fairness to all was certainly recognized; one judge, for example, is declared to have been appointed on the strength of his impartiality. §REF§(Mabbett and Changler 1995, 168)§REF§" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": "'The first Chinese envoys who wrote about Fu- nan in about 250 c.e. described it as an urbanized kingdom that resembled the Chinese state rather than the region’s other tribal social systems. They pointed to the structured political hierarchy and bureaucracy including a centralized judiciary system, institutionalized religion, and even libraries.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 224)§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The evidence that either mountain was a cult site is stronger than the evidence that Funan was a major, unified kingdom or that its political center was associated with either hill.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 20)§REF§ 'Most scholars accept an identification with the Funan kingdom described by Chinese visitors, as early as the third century C.E., as a complex of walled political centers where craft specialists plied their trade, summary justice was adminis- tered, stone inscriptions were engraved, and the range of mortuary practices included inhumations. Angkor Borei may have been the “inland capital” of Funan referred to by the Chinese, as its large area (300 hectares) and plethora of brickwork suggest.'§REF§(Bulbeck 2004, p. 876)§REF§" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " From the example of Carthage, as well as that of the Israelites." }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic courts?" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters - suggests a resistance to centralization.'§REF§(McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " In Jenne-Jeno there is no evidence for a state bureaucracy, priesthood, military or a king.§REF§(McIntosh, 31) McIntosh, Roderick J. Clustered Cities of the Middle Niger: Alternative Routes to Authority in Prehistory. in Anderson, David M. Rathbone, Richard. eds. 2000. Africa's Urban Past. James Currey Ltd. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The chief of the village was the legal authority.§REF§(Keil 2012, 108) Sarah Keil. Bambara. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) \"appointed the first qadi of Jenne and extended Islamic judicial administration to other towns by establishing courts and appointing judges.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§<br>Kadi. Islamic law. Legal system independent of tribal chiefs. Customary law. Court to punish adultery. Tribunals. §REF§(Cissoko 1984, 196, 199-202)§REF§" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " As much as we know about the governance system is there was probably \"a formal bureaucracy but not an entirely centralized administration.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 225)§REF§" }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }