Court List
A viewset for viewing and editing Courts.
GET /api/sc/courts/?format=api
{ "count": 435, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/courts/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There were no courts under Patshtunwali, rather 'justice' took place outside of a formalized structure. §REF§Rosman, Abraham, Paula G. Rubel, and Maxine Weisgrau. The tapestry of culture: An introduction to cultural anthropology. Rowman Altamira, 2009. p.349§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " not entire period. need to timestamp<br>\"The appointment of judges (quddat, sing. qadi) who enforced the religious law, the Shari'a, was also in the Sultan's hands.\"§REF§(Jackson 2003, 25) Jackson, Peter. 2003. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " inferred present under Seleucids. may have been present at start then lost." }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " There were such things as legal documents and land transfer deeds written in Kharoshthi.§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Courts are not mentioned in Loewe's §REF§(Loewe 1968, 67-68)§REF§ detailed description of the legal process in Han times.<br>If there were no courts, what was the Superintendent of trials§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§ concerned with? Where were trials held, if not in a place for trials, i.e. courts?" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred retention of institutions from Eastern Han.<br>Under Eastern Han there was a Superintendent of trials§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§ - trials presumably would be held in a court." }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Specialist, full-time judge unlikely at this time. Before specialist judge we might expect a generalist or part-time judge would evolve, but we have no data. Due to central importance of religious ritual to this authoritarian society we could infer there was no secular sphere of law over which a non-religious specialist could adjudicate." }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Specialist, full-time judge unlikely at this time. Before specialist judge we might expect a generalist or part-time judge would evolve, but we have no data. Due to central importance of religious ritual to this authoritarian society we could infer there was no secular sphere of law over which a non-religious specialist could adjudicate." }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Disputes between villagers were settled by respected elders rather than in formal courts: 'In every Sheng Miao village there is a set of rules and regulations which are voluntarily observed. In case of violation the offense is quickly adjudged by the public and an elder is invited to execute the punishment. Before it is carried out, however, he would tell the accused in a solemn manner the myths of their ancestors. Also in the case of a serious dispute the elder would summon both parties together, and first tell them the story of their ancestors before settling the dispute. After a decision is rendered in this fashion both parties would show compliance and would not carry the case to the law courts. Although the mythology handed down from mouth to mouth does not have religious contents, it becomes a kind of prophecy to those people who hold everything pertaining to their ancestors in the highest respect. It is entirely due to this inherent respect for their ancestors that the ancestral myth is recounted before carrying out the punishment or at the time of settling a dispute. The idea is to employ the will of the ancestors to restrain the actions of their descendants. It is interesting to note that the mythology of the Sheng Miao, meant originally to inform posterity of the stories of their ancestors' life, has also assumed the corrective and preventive functions of law.' §REF§Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow\", 76§REF§ 'These, of course, were only a few of the disputes which arose in the village or among the whole group of Cowrie Shell Miao. Most small matters were settled among themselves. Much of the old man's time was taken up with such cases. Sometimes others of the village elders were called in for consultation. This was according to the Chinese Government system, though in effect this formed the village government, or council. If matters could not be settled by them, they were taken before the lien pao official, and, if necessary, to the hsien magistrate.' §REF§Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, 45a§REF§ Cases were occasionally decided by ordeal: 'The Miao are addicted to kuei and to litigation. Sometimes litigation may last a year, and the court, unable to decide the case, may ask both parties to eat blood. This serves as a deterrent. Yen Ju-yü in his Miao Fang-pei Lan says: “Those who enter the temple to drink blood move on their knees and bellies, not daring to look up; those who are in the wrong dare not drink it, but repent and yield.” In the course of our investigations in the Miao frontier area, the private secretary of the hsien government at Feng-huang, Mr. Wang Yüeh-yen told us: “The T 'ien Wang temple is the Supreme Court of the Miao area. When a Miao is not satisfied with the decision of the hsien government, then he is ordered to go to the T 'ien Wang temple to drink blood. Whatever the litigation, big or small, it receives immediate settlement.” It can be seen that the Miao's awe of kuei is greater than their awe of the law.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 228§REF§ Formal courts presided over by Chinese judges were located in towns and handled disputes that could not be settled on the local level: 'Like Kweiyang, the hsien city of Lung-li was in an open plain, but a narrow one. The space between the mountains was sufficient for a walled town of one long street between the east and west gates and one or two on either side. There were fields outside the city walls. Its normal population was between three and four thousand, augmented during the war by the coming of some “companies” for the installation and repair of charcoal burners in motor lorries and the distillation of grain alcohol for fuel, an Army officers' training school, and the engineers' corps of the railway being built through the town from Kwangsi to Kweiyang. To it the people of the surrounding contryside, including at least three groups of Miao and the Chung-chia, went to market. It was also the seat of the hsien government and contained a middle school, postal and telegraph offices, and a cooperative bank, with all of which the non-Chinese, as well as the Chinese, had some dealings. A few of the more well-to-do families sent one of their boys to the middle school. Cases which could not be settled in the village or by the lien pao official, who was also a Chinese, were of necessity brought to the hsien court, as well as cases which involved both Miao and Chinese.' §REF§Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, 40b§REF§ 'The Magpie Miao live in villages, occasionally compact but normally consisting of a cluster of separate hamlets. These are located on mountain slopes, usually far enough away from main transportation routes to be inaccessible and readily defensible. The Miao lack any political organization of their own, and are thoroughly integrated into the Chinese administrative system. The basic political, as well as economic and social unit, is the village. Villages are grouped into townships and divided into hamlets of about ten to twenty households each. The headmen of both the village and the hamlet are appointed by the chief of the township. The members of different villages or hamlets are bound principally by affinal ties. They may cooperate for the common good, but they lack any formal organization of an indigenous character. Disputes between members of the same hamlet are settled, if possible, within the hamlet. Those between members of different hamlets of the same village are adjudicated by a council composed of the village headman and the heads of the hamlets involved. If this council cannot effect a settlement, the litigants have a right to carry their dispute to the chief of the township or even to the Chinese court of the county.' §REF§Rui, Yifu 1960. “Magpie Miao Of Southern Szechuan”, 145§REF§ Given how Hmong villagers made use of the Chinese legal system, we have decided to code the variable 'present'." }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the late Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, several inscriptions record decisions in legal cases, most commonly disputes over land.\"§REF§(Lewis 2009, 228) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press.§REF§ - where were trials held for legal cases?<br>\"Court\" for trials existed in Spring and Autumn period (reference not specific to Chu).§REF§(Brooks and Brooks) Brooks, E, Bruce. Brooks, A, Taeko. 2015. The Emergence of China: From Confucius to the Empire. Warring States Project.§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Specialist courts require a culture of high degree of literacy not present at this time." }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Censorate in Beijing & Ministry of Justice §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.158)§REF§; The yamen at county was served as court in the local. §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.158)§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"At the capital the three principal organs concerned with legal matters continued to be the Censorate, the Court of Judicial Review (Ta-li ssu), and the Ministry of Justice (Hsing-pu), a pattern which was to continue through the Sung dynasty (960-1279).\"§REF§(McKnight 2015, 252)§REF§<br>Lowest level court was the yamen of the county magistrate (chih-hsien).§REF§(McKnight 2015, 264)§REF§<br>At prefectural level \"three (or sometimes four) separate courts\". \"Ordinary prefectures had a prefectural court (chou-yuan) headed by an executive inspector (lu-shih ts'an-chun), an on-duty office (tang chih-ssu) headed by a staff-supervisor (p'an kuan) or prefectural judge (t'ui kuan), and a court of the police inspector (ssu-li ts'an-chun). In superior prefectural (fu) capitals there were two such police inspectors' courts (of the right and the left), and in two of the four imperial capitals two courts of the military inspectors (also divided into the right and the left) (tso yu chun-hsun yuan).\" §REF§(McKnight 2015, 267)§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Throughout China's imperial history, local administrators exercised judicial as well as executive powers in their areas, and routine trial and punishment was, in Sui as in other dynasties, part of their regular duties.\" §REF§(Wright, Arthur. 1978. The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China, AD 581-617. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 117)§REF§ “[Emperor Xiaowen] promoted Confucian learning, modeled the Northern Wei bureaucratic system and legal system after the Han dynasty as protocol for court proceedings and rituals.” §REF§(Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History. Oxford: OUP, 303.)§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Magistrates heard cases§REF§(Zhang, 2011, 63)§REF§ but it seems this would be done in government buildings rather than a specialized courthouse." }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Magistrates heard cases§REF§(Zhang, 2011, 63)§REF§ but it seems this would be done in government buildings rather than a specialized courthouse." }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Supreme Court of Justice (Ta-li ssu), including both high officials and legal experts, considered the written evidence regarding a serious crime, determined the character of the crime and recommended the final sentence, which was pronounced by the emperor. It is probable that the Supreme Court was primarily a court of appeal or referral while the Board of Justice of the Department of State Affairs gave judgements in many cases where the law was clear.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 105)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Supreme Court of Justice \"reviewed the evidence relating to serious crimes and made recommendations to the emperor on the appropriate sentences.\" §REF§(Roberts 1996, 89)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Supreme Court of Justice \"reviewed the evidence relating to serious crimes and made recommendations to the emperor on the appropriate sentences.\" §REF§(Roberts 1996, 89)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Legalists were the chief proponents of the use of a penal code to control the people. During the Warring States period, the sovereigns of the various states had little use for morals and rites. They were more concerned with building strong states, strengthening their armies, and enlarging their territories. This can only be realized by being able to keep a submissive people. The Legalists proved more useful for their political aspirations, as they exerted a major influence on Chinese traditional law and legal institutions, which were set up under their direction.\"§REF§(Fu 1993, 107) Fu, Zhengyuan. 1993. Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Courts are not mentioned in Loewe's §REF§(Loewe 1968, 67-68)§REF§ detailed description of the legal process in Han times. However, their existence may be inferred from the existence of a Superintendent of trials§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§." }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"With the development of the state machine of the Zhou dynasty, under the leadership of the monarch, the central judicial organizations headed by \"Si Kou\" (the minister of justice) and \"Shi Shi\" (the official in charge of criminal affairs) were established, and the local judicial organizations, named \"Xiang Shi\", \"Sui Shi\", \"Xian Shi\", \"Fang Shi\", and \"Ya Shi\", had also been set up to deal with the judicial affairs.\"§REF§(Zhang 2014, 155) Zhang, Jinfan. 2014. The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§<br>\"In the late Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, several inscriptions record decisions in legal cases, most commonly disputes over land.\"§REF§(Lewis 2009, 228) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press.§REF§ - where were trials held for legal cases?" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Mongols apparently introduced greater leniency into the Chinese legal system. The number of capital crimes amounted to 135, less than one-half the number mandated in the Sung dynasty codes. Criminals could, following Mongolian practice, avoid punishment by paying a sum to the government. Khubilai could grant amnesties, and he did so, even to rebels or political enemies. Officials of the provincial or central government routinely reviewed local judicial decisions on serious crimes in order to prevent abuses of the rights of the accused. Because there have not been any careful studies of this code in operation, it is difficult to tell whether these statutory reforms translated into a more lenient and flexible system than under the earlier Chinese dynasties. Yet the legal ideals embodied in this code supported by Khubilai and the Mongols did indeed appear less harsh than earlier Chinese ones.\" §REF§(Rossabi, M. 1994. The reign of Khubilai khan. In Franke, H. and D. Twitchett (eds) The Cambridge History of China, volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 710-1368 pp. 414-489. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 453-454)§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Kinsmen of the dead, not courts, decided on the course of action taken: 'Feuding or warfare is endemic among the Jivaro. Because of the retaliatory nature of legal sanctions in the society, the application of avenging action frequently initiates long and drawn out hostilities between two groups of kinsmen. This pattern of repeated application of sanctions by two families against one another is a dominant preoccupation especially among the interior Jivaro. These feuds may be formally ended by payment to the deceased's relatives, or when one of the eldest men on one side is killed, or when each group of kinsmen has lost a man.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'After this idea took hold, they travelled upriver to the settlement of Bupátä's brother Ungúmï, a húndach, or old one (although he is only about 45 years old), to seek his counsel. Then, Santü journeyed further north into Ecuador to converse with Mukwíngü, the mother's brother of Bupátä and Ungúmï. Such counsel, as I have indicated, forms an important part of the protocol that characterizes the pattern of Achuarä hostilities. Not every death attributed to sorcery is avenged, especially in the case of young children. But, once a homicide is committed in retaliation for perceived sorcery-related deaths, it inevitably calls forth a revenge raid sometime in the future on the part of close relatives-brothers-in-law or sons-in-law, usually-of the victims. Should their retaliation prove successful, close relatives of the person whose death initiated the feud also become obligated to avenge the more recent killing. Each successive death draws greater numbers of relatives into the feud on each side, and more and more lives are placed in jeopardy.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 102§REF§ The material suggests that the Shuar population was not pulled into the settler court system during the Spanish colonial period: 'In retaliation against the ravages of whites and such client Amerindians, some groups responded with force to outside efforts at settlement and exploitation. It is within this general context that our knowledge of Jivaroan warfare and feuding exists; and while the causes of Jívaro conflict lie in good part in environmental factors, this wider dimension cannot be ignored. As early as 1599, the Jivaroan peoples razed the Spanish gold-mining towns of eastern Ecuador and northern Peru, where Indian labor was being exploited to fill the coffers of the Spanish crown (Harner 1972:18-26; Izaguirre 1929/XI:11-19). Subsequent efforts to reestablish mines in the same region of the upper Santiago River have been persistently resisted as have other forms of occupation that have been attempted in or around the Jivaroan area.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 84§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Kinsmen of the dead, not courts, decided on the course of action taken: 'Feuding or warfare is endemic among the Jivaro. Because of the retaliatory nature of legal sanctions in the society, the application of avenging action frequently initiates long and drawn out hostilities between two groups of kinsmen. This pattern of repeated application of sanctions by two families against one another is a dominant preoccupation especially among the interior Jivaro. These feuds may be formally ended by payment to the deceased's relatives, or when one of the eldest men on one side is killed, or when each group of kinsmen has lost a man.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'After this idea took hold, they travelled upriver to the settlement of Bupátä's brother Ungúmï, a húndach, or old one (although he is only about 45 years old), to seek his counsel. Then, Santü journeyed further north into Ecuador to converse with Mukwíngü, the mother's brother of Bupátä and Ungúmï. Such counsel, as I have indicated, forms an important part of the protocol that characterizes the pattern of Achuarä hostilities. Not every death attributed to sorcery is avenged, especially in the case of young children. But, once a homicide is committed in retaliation for perceived sorcery-related deaths, it inevitably calls forth a revenge raid sometime in the future on the part of close relatives-brothers-in-law or sons-in-law, usually-of the victims. Should their retaliation prove successful, close relatives of the person whose death initiated the feud also become obligated to avenge the more recent killing. Each successive death draws greater numbers of relatives into the feud on each side, and more and more lives are placed in jeopardy.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 102§REF§ The material suggests that the Shuar population was not pulled into the settler court system during the early Ecuadorian period: 'In retaliation against the ravages of whites and such client Amerindians, some groups responded with force to outside efforts at settlement and exploitation. It is within this general context that our knowledge of Jivaroan warfare and feuding exists; and while the causes of Jívaro conflict lie in good part in environmental factors, this wider dimension cannot be ignored. As early as 1599, the Jivaroan peoples razed the Spanish gold-mining towns of eastern Ecuador and northern Peru, where Indian labor was being exploited to fill the coffers of the Spanish crown (Harner 1972:18-26; Izaguirre 1929/XI:11-19). Subsequent efforts to reestablish mines in the same region of the upper Santiago River have been persistently resisted as have other forms of occupation that have been attempted in or around the Jivaroan area.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 84§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Palace of Justice founded 1240 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 90)§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " unknown. pr.w nzw \"fulfilled a certain judicial function.\" §REF§(Engel 2013, 20-38)§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " unknown pr.w nzw \"fulfilled a certain judicial function.\" §REF§(Engel 2013, 20-38)§REF§" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Saite Period there was a kind of court process but there may not have been a \"court building\". §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>In Late Period Egypt \"Egyptian women (unlike Greeks) could act in transactions on their own behalf and without any guardian whatsoever; equally, women could come forward in law-courts totally unaided as plaintiffs or defendants. And it is quite evident that women were capable of independent economic activities regardless of marital status.\"§REF§(Allam 1990, 33) Allam, S. 1990. Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period). Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol. 33, No. 1 (1990), pp. 1-34. BRILL§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " During the Saite Period there was a kind of court process but there may not have been a \"court building\". §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>In Late Period Egypt \"Egyptian women (unlike Greeks) could act in transactions on their own behalf and without any guardian whatsoever; equally, women could come forward in law-courts totally unaided as plaintiffs or defendants. And it is quite evident that women were capable of independent economic activities regardless of marital status.\"§REF§(Allam 1990, 33) Allam, S. 1990. Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period). Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol. 33, No. 1 (1990), pp. 1-34. BRILL§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Prior to the Ottoman conquest in 1517, Egypt had no courts, and judges conducted business from their homes §REF§(Andrey Korotayev, personal communication, March 2018)§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Prior to the Ottoman conquest in 1517, Egypt had no courts, and judges conducted business from their homes §REF§(Andrey Korotayev, personal communication, March 2018)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Prior to the Ottoman conquest in 1517, Egypt had no courts, and judges conducted business from their homes §REF§(Andrey Korotayev, personal communication, March 2018)§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446 probably from Thebes 12th-13th Dynasty \"confirms information from other sources that a woman in the Middle Kingdom had the right to her own property and that she could start a court action.\"§REF§(Van De Mieroop 2011, 119) Van De Mieroop, Marc. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Backwell. Chichester.§REF§<br>No evidence for the same system of law that existed in the Old Kingdom. §REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§<br>All officials were responsible for reporting crime to the vizier's office, which either ratified decisions made by the lower officials or set up an investigation itself (and if necessary enacted a punishment).§REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The following quotes are relevant but do not explicitly confirm the existence of a physical building exclusively devoted to legal proceedings.<br>van den Boorn (1988)<br>\"We want to stress that the vizier apparently does not pronounce a verdict on the dispute itself. He only orders a re-assessment to be carried out by the local officials in charge and stipulates its duration. Therefore, the petitioner's request is not for a trial or re-trial, his appeal is concerned with obtaining legal permission for a re-assessment by the local authorities. Ultimately, the matter will be settled locally.\"§REF§(van den Boorn 1988, 165) van den Boorn, G. P. F. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier. Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. Kegan Paul International. London & New York.§REF§<br>O'Connor (1983)<br>\"Oracles, which were always delivered by a specific god but variously in his 'national' or local form, were a source of reassurance and guidance for individuals and an important social mechanism easing the tensions and conflicts inherent in closely-knit and largely self-regulating town and village communities. The local kenbet-councils ... were clearly unable or unwilling to solve many disputes involving ownership or rights and cases of theft and other crimes, and these were therefore submitted to a god as a neutral arbitrator of unimpeachable authority.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 199) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The New Kingdom kenbet-councils were primarily judicial but they were also quasi-administrative, since they were often concerned with property rights.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 214) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Archival texts of court proceedings.§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 185) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Courts called kenbet at local and provincial levels. §REF§(Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73§REF§<br>\"It is difficult to answer the question of whether the kenbet was a council or a court, or both.\" §REF§(Haring 2010)§REF§<br>Civil service officials controlled the judiciary. Vizier was the chief judge on civil matters. §REF§(<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.oup.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/170013/HUR_Ant2_2e_Ch01.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">[9]</a>)§REF§<br>\"with priests of the local temples, nomarchs comprised the district court of justice.\" §REF§(Pardey 2001)§REF§<br>All officials were responsible for reporting crime to the vizier's office, which either ratified decisions made by the lower officials or set up an investigation itself (and if necessary enacted a punishment).§REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes are relevant but do not explictly confirm the existence of a physical building exclusively devoted to legal proceedings<br>van den Boorn (1988)<br>\"We want to stress that the vizier apparently does not pronounce a verdict on the dispute itself. He only orders a re-assessment to be carried out by the local officials in charge and stipulates its duration. Therefore, the petitioner's request is not for a trial or re-trial, his appeal is concerned with obtaining legal permission for a re-assessment by the local authorities. Ultimately, the matter will be settled locally.\"§REF§(van den Boorn 1988, 165) van den Boorn, G. P. F. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier. Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. Kegan Paul International. London & New York.§REF§<br>O'Connor (1983)<br>\"Oracles, which were always delivered by a specific god but variously in his 'national' or local form, were a source of reassurance and guidance for individuals and an important social mechanism easing the tensions and conflicts inherent in closely-knit and largely self-regulating town and village communities. The local kenbet-councils ... were clearly unable or unwilling to solve many disputes involving ownership or rights and cases of theft and other crimes, and these were therefore submitted to a god as a neutral arbitrator of unimpeachable authority.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 199) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The New Kingdom kenbet-councils were primarily judicial but they were also quasi-administrative, since they were often concerned with property rights.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 214) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Archival texts of court proceedings.§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 185) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Courts called kenbet at local and provincial levels. §REF§(Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73)§REF§<br>\"It is difficult to answer the question of whether the kenbet was a council or a court, or both.\" §REF§(Haring 2010)§REF§<br>Civil service officials controlled the judiciary. Vizier was the chief judge on civil matters. §REF§(<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.oup.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/170013/HUR_Ant2_2e_Ch01.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">[7]</a>)§REF§<br>\"with priests of the local temples, nomarchs comprised the district court of justice.\" §REF§(Pardey 2001)§REF§<br>All officials were responsible for reporting crime to the vizier's office, which either ratified decisions made by the lower officials or set up an investigation itself (and if necessary enacted a punishment).§REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Law courts with permanent officials, titles include: “Overseer of the court”, “Master of the Secrets of judgements in the court.” §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 139)§REF§ Permanent, specialized officials with jurisdiction over criminal cases. The vizier held the top position in the law system, the \"overseer of the six courts.\"§REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Law courts with permanent officials, titles include: “Overseer of the court”, “Master of the Secrets of judgements in the court.” §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 139)§REF§ Permanent, specialized officials with jurisdiction over criminal cases. The vizier held the top position in the law system, the \"overseer of the six courts.\"§REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>We have to distinguish between three different court systems: a royal court, a Greek court and an Egyptian court. However, there are some changes to this set up over time in this period. None of these different court systems had specialized court buildings." }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>We have to distinguish between three different court systems: a royal court, a Greek court and an Egyptian court. However, there are some changes to this set up over time in this period. None of these different court systems had specialized court buildings." }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " not present Middle Kingdom. present Old Kingdom." }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " not present Middle Kingdom. present Old Kingdom." }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred absent or unknown. In temples. there was a kind of court process but there may not have been a \"court building\" §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>In Late Period Egypt \"Egyptian women (unlike Greeks) could act in transactions on their own behalf and without any guardian whatsoever; equally, women could come forward in law-courts totally unaided as plaintiffs or defendants. And it is quite evident that women were capable of independent economic activities regardless of marital status.\"§REF§(Allam 1990, 33) Allam, S. 1990. Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period). Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol. 33, No. 1 (1990), pp. 1-34. BRILL§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Courts were inferred present for Middle Kingdom." } ] }