Court List
A viewset for viewing and editing Courts.
GET /api/sc/courts/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 435, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/courts/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/courts/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Courts were inferred present for Middle Kingdom." }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Note: This is the code for Abbasid Caliphate. Court proceedings took place either in a Judge's own residence, the main mosque of the city or in the palace.§REF§Zubaida, Sami, Law and power in the Islamic world. (Tauris & Company Limited, 2005) p. 46§REF§" }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Courts present in Europe and the colonies. “In 1511, a tribunal of independent royal judges was constituted in the colony of Espanola to try cases appealed from the town magistrates and the governor.” §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25.) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>.§REF§§REF§(Escobar 2016, 260) Escobar, Jesus. 2016. \"Architecture in the Age of the Spanish Habsburgs.\" <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i> 75(3): 258-261. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"The common norms of law that prevailed in the kingdom may be studied in the first juridicial records of Aksum: in the four laws from the Safra (Drewes, p. 73).\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>\"Later Ethiopian law followed the Fetha Nagast, 'The Law of the Kings' written in Arabic by a Copt in the mid-thirteenth century, and translated into Ge'ez perhaps in the middle of the fifteenth century (Tzadua 1968), but inscriptions like that of Safra show that there were earlier legal codes in use (Drewes 1962).\"§REF§(Munro-Hay 1991, 252) Stuart C Munro-Hay. 1991. Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§<br>\"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes, priests of temple or church, middle-ranking members of the army, merchants, and perhaps some of the more skilled craftsmen. Amongst such a class there would probably be some foreigners, permitted to live in Ethiopia because of their special skills.\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Goodenough mentions colonial courts that dealt with issues that could not be resolved on the local level: 'As soon as courts were re-established, they were deluged with property disputes. The Japanese had treated grants of corporation land to the children of one of its men as if they were an inheritance by a man’s children of his individually owned land. The result was that many disputes coming before the American high court were between the members of a corporation and the children of its men. The latter were disputing the residual title of the former and claiming full title for themselves, and the former were asserting their confiscatory and reversionary rights under traditional residual title. The court undertook seriously to follow local custom, but some witnesses presented the rulings of the Japanese courts as representing local custom whereas others presented the traditional system as local custom, depending on which representation was to their immediate advantage.The high court, I am told, chose to follow the precedent set by the Japanese and ruled that if it could be established that a corporation grant to the children of one of its men had been made with the consent of the corporation’s members, then the children had [Page 80] the same rights as if it had been their father’s personal property.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1974. “Changing Social Organization On Romónum, Truk, 1947-1965”, 79§REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information found in sources so far." }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " See reference §REF§(Ladurie 1991)§REF§<br>Parlements<br>13* regional judicial bodies - including Parlement of Paris, Parlement of Toulouse - that were courts of appeal and implemented the king's law in the regions. *Unreferenced" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There were definitely court buildings, but these were probably used for other purposes." }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Legal procedure known from Formularies and case records. Courts. Used Roman tradition of written evidence. Law not homogeneous \"each person was entitled to be judged according to the law of his or her place of birth or ethnic group.\" Royal Court was the highest court, settled disputes between magnates. §REF§(Fouracre in Wood ed. 1998, 286-289)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Coded present for Early Valois<br>Law courts called parlements established at the Royal Palace in Paris by Philip IV. Justice administration \"in the hands of parlements staffed by professional lawyers organized in three chambers.\" §REF§(Spufford 2006, 68)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Official regulations covered \"private property rights, the rule of law, trial by jury\".§REF§(Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"In the case of Britain and the states that obtained independence from it, the two important components are Parliament as supreme law-maker and the nature and jurisdiction of courts.\"§REF§(Taucar 2014) Christopher Edward Taucar. 2014. The British System of Government and Its Historical Development. McGill-Queen's University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The house of the Ohene usually doubled as court: 'The place of trial is usually the house of the Ohene, and is open to everybody. It has been observed by Cruickshank, among others, that in addition to these official members, any person of respectability in the community has the right to attend the court of the ruler and councillors. Causes of great public importance are heard in the open air, and in the presence of as many as it pleases to attend. On such occasions, any one-even the most ordinary youth-will offer his opinion or make suggestion with an equal [Page 34] chance of its being as favourably entertained on its merits as if it proceeded from the most experienced sage, for in the multitude of people is the king's honour, and there is safety in the multitude of counsellors. To prevent this license being abused, to the interruption of business by the interposition of crude and absurd opinions, a sufficient check is supplied in the general ridicule with which they are received, the offensive forwardness of the fool is jeered at and reprobated in no measured terms, while approbation and loud expressions of applause reward the prudent adviser. Mr. Justice Macleod, in Amocoo v. Duker, * correctly stated, decisions of these tribunals should not be lightly set aside. And in land cases especially, judges ought to be guided by what was laid down by the court in Asraidu v. Dadzie, † namely, give the same judgment that a native court judging honestly and in accordance with native law and custom ought to give.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 33p§REF§" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following seems to indicate the presence of courts: 'The initial processes applicable to civil, oath, accused or criminal summonses have already been described. In order to meet the clerical service required for these forms, there is attached to the important Tribunals a Registrar's office where summonses and all the other processes are taken. The Registrar has charge of the cause list and the Record Books. In Akim Abuakwa the tribunal sits for five days in the week, Wednesday being excluded by the “Awukudae” custom, and Sunday by the British connexion and other Christian influences. Sittings of Tribunal last for about 6 to 10 working hours each day, and the Omanhene, as responsible judge, is always expected to be present throughout the day's sitting. We have already described the constitution of the Tribunal as consisting of the Omanhene, his Linguists, his four principal Executive Chiefs, the Queen-Mother, the non-Stool owning Elders and Councillors (including in the latter term the Christian Elders and Presbyters). The Tribunal is summoned by the “Kantamanto” or “woni-mini” drum ( q.v.) and on the Omanhene taking his seat at the third beating of the drum, the Registrar proceeds to deal with his cause list.' §REF§Danquah, J. B. (Joseph Boakye), 1928: 97; Literacy Database§REF§ This remains in need of confirmation." }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Legal disputes were tried in the agora (the central gathering place) of the city." }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Legal disputes were tried in the <i>agora</i> (the central gathering place) of the city.<br><i>Crete owes much of its fame in Classical Greece to its internal organization and its cultivation of the laws. This prestige is partly due to mythological traditions and Minoan memories and survivals. The laws that, according to legend, Minos received every nine years, and the figure of Rhadamanthys the just judge, bear witness to a dim recollection of an earlier rule of law. From as early as the 7th century BCE, Crete had engaged in important legislative innovations, some of which can be reconstructed from the later laws of Gortyn. The famous legal inscription of Gortyn is not an isolated example. Fragments of laws dating from the 7th to the mid-5th century survive in many cities. The reasons for this legislative activity - an activity that includes both the recording of older laws and the introduction of new ones - were the major problems concerning land ownership, inheritance, small landowners' dependence on creditors as a result of the gradual spread of a monetary economy, and the presence of individuals who lacked political rights but engaged in important financial activities as traders, craftsmen and freelance workers. There was very little interest in reform of the existing regime: the handful of laws on civic issues were intended to limit the arbitrary actions and immunity of the </i>Kosmoi<i>.</i>" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 236-46.§REF§" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from discussion in sources of development/introduction in later periods" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from discussion of sources of development/introduction in later periods" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The judicial disputes presided over by village headmen do not constitute courts in the conventional sense of the term: 'The responsibility of the headman is to look after the affairs of his anak-biak , or followers, and, as a matter of course, he is expected to know every aspect of customary adat . If a dispute is referred to the headman, he will attempt to settle it with the help of the Tuai Umai or Tuai Burong (the farm leader or augury expert, respectively), and other village members who are well versed in customary adat . The Tuai Burong is an expert in various kinds of augury as well as being well versed in the genealogies and history of his community.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict, and Clifford Sather 1980. “Iban Adat And Augury”, 3§REF§ But the Brooke administration established courts on district/polity level in the colonial period only: 'By 1900, Brooke control of Sarawak was fairly well established. The government was gradually extending its efforts into such fields as agricultural research. As it established a system of courts and law, effort was made, whenever possible, to codify and preserve local customary law ( adat ). From this time on, the mainstream of Iban migration was much less violent, despite cultural ideals, and as we will see, much slower. However, government regulations notwithstanding, the migrations did not cease.' §REF§Austin, Robert Frederi. 1978. “Iban Migration: Patterns Of Mobility And Employment In The 20Th Century”, 16§REF§" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": 1841, "year_to": 1924, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The judicial disputes presided over by village headmen do not constitute courts in the conventional sense of the term: 'The responsibility of the headman is to look after the affairs of his anak-biak , or followers, and, as a matter of course, he is expected to know every aspect of customary adat . If a dispute is referred to the headman, he will attempt to settle it with the help of the Tuai Umai or Tuai Burong (the farm leader or augury expert, respectively), and other village members who are well versed in customary adat . The Tuai Burong is an expert in various kinds of augury as well as being well versed in the genealogies and history of his community.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict, and Clifford Sather 1980. “Iban Adat And Augury”, 3§REF§ But the Brooke administration established courts on district/polity level: 'By 1900, Brooke control of Sarawak was fairly well established. The government was gradually extending its efforts into such fields as agricultural research. As it established a system of courts and law, effort was made, whenever possible, to codify and preserve local customary law ( adat ). From this time on, the mainstream of Iban migration was much less violent, despite cultural ideals, and as we will see, much slower. However, government regulations notwithstanding, the migrations did not cease.' §REF§Austin, Robert Frederi. 1978. “Iban Migration: Patterns Of Mobility And Employment In The 20Th Century”, 16§REF§ Iban communities occasionally made use of the colonial system of courts seeking verdicts in translocal matters: 'The Chinese-Iban relationship was not entirely harmonious. The Chinese sometimes cheated their customers by using rigged scales to weigh jungle produce, but the Ibans retaliated by mixing earth and other trash into the gutta, and later they learned to practice similar tricks with cultivated rubber as well. The early outstation Chinese were often rough and roistering, the Ibans were hot tempered, and communal quarrels inevitably occurred. Ibans sometimes protested in the Simanggang court when rowdy shopkeepers pinched the exposed bosoms of their women. After one such incident the magistrate observed, “More than one complaint has been made by Dayaks of Chinamen behaving thus, and it is disgraceful that a woman cannot walk in the bazaar without being assaulted in an indecent manner by Chinamen.”' §REF§Pringle, Robert Maxwell 1968. “Ibans Of Sarawak Under Brooke Rule, 1841-1941”, 490§REF§ We have assumed the same provisional date of transition as above." }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": 1924, "year_to": 1987, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The judicial disputes presided over by village headmen do not constitute courts in the conventional sense of the term: 'The responsibility of the headman is to look after the affairs of his anak-biak , or followers, and, as a matter of course, he is expected to know every aspect of customary adat . If a dispute is referred to the headman, he will attempt to settle it with the help of the Tuai Umai or Tuai Burong (the farm leader or augury expert, respectively), and other village members who are well versed in customary adat . The Tuai Burong is an expert in various kinds of augury as well as being well versed in the genealogies and history of his community.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict, and Clifford Sather 1980. “Iban Adat And Augury”, 3§REF§ But the Brooke administration established courts on district/polity level: 'By 1900, Brooke control of Sarawak was fairly well established. The government was gradually extending its efforts into such fields as agricultural research. As it established a system of courts and law, effort was made, whenever possible, to codify and preserve local customary law ( adat ). From this time on, the mainstream of Iban migration was much less violent, despite cultural ideals, and as we will see, much slower. However, government regulations notwithstanding, the migrations did not cease.' §REF§Austin, Robert Frederi. 1978. “Iban Migration: Patterns Of Mobility And Employment In The 20Th Century”, 16§REF§ Iban communities occasionally made use of the colonial system of courts seeking verdicts in translocal matters: 'The Chinese-Iban relationship was not entirely harmonious. The Chinese sometimes cheated their customers by using rigged scales to weigh jungle produce, but the Ibans retaliated by mixing earth and other trash into the gutta, and later they learned to practice similar tricks with cultivated rubber as well. The early outstation Chinese were often rough and roistering, the Ibans were hot tempered, and communal quarrels inevitably occurred. Ibans sometimes protested in the Simanggang court when rowdy shopkeepers pinched the exposed bosoms of their women. After one such incident the magistrate observed, “More than one complaint has been made by Dayaks of Chinamen behaving thus, and it is disgraceful that a woman cannot walk in the bazaar without being assaulted in an indecent manner by Chinamen.”' §REF§Pringle, Robert Maxwell 1968. “Ibans Of Sarawak Under Brooke Rule, 1841-1941”, 490§REF§ We have assumed the same provisional date of transition as above." }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Stepped roof type pendopo once sheltered the institutions of ancient Javanese kingdoms, such as law courts, clergy, palaces, and for public appearances of the king and his ministers. §REF§(Schoppert et al 1997)§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Stepped roof type pendopo once sheltered the institutions of ancient Javanese kingdoms, such as law courts, clergy, palaces, and for public appearances of the king and his ministers. §REF§(Schoppert et al 1997)§REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic law (fiqh) used extensively existed alongside older Hindu Javanese adat (customary law) which took precedence. §REF§(Ooi 2004, 219)§REF§ Oral tradition continued to be more important than the conduct of justice in Java, however. §REF§(Reid 1988, 137)§REF§" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Borobudur reliefs depict the stepped roof type pendopo which once sheltered the institutions of ancient Javanese kingdoms, such as law courts, clergy, palaces, and for public appearances of the king and his ministers. §REF§(Schoppert et al 1997)§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A number of different courts existed, each probably dedicated to a different unit of administration §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 230§REF§." }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Court", "court": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The \"judicial [...] administration of the Chalukyas resembled that of their ancestors\" §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 91§REF§, the Chalukyas of Badami, for whom a number of different courts existed, each probably dedicated to a different unit of administration §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 230§REF§." } ] }