Communal Building List
A viewset for viewing and editing Communal Buildings.
GET /api/sc/communal-buildings/?format=api
{ "count": 132, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/communal-buildings/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 613, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " From the Seshat Codebook: \"This code distinguishes between settlements that consist of only private households (code 'absent') and settlements where there are communal buildings which could be used for a variety of uses (code 'present').\" Based on this, this variable should be coded \"absent\", because people in the region at this time lived in independent homesteads. ”The community [of Kirikongo] was founded by a single house (Mound 4) c. ad 100 (Yellow I), as part of a regional expansion of farming peoples in small homesteads in western Burkina Faso. A true village emerged with the establishment of a second house (Mound 1) c. ad 450, and by the end of the first millennium ad the community had expanded to six houses. At first, these were economically generalized houses (potting, iron metallurgy, farming and herding) settled distantly apart with direct access to farming land that appear to have exercised some autonomy.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2015: 21-22)§REF§ " }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 617, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Specialized iron production shifted from the inhabitants of Mound 4 to those at Mound 11, and iron smelting remained set at a distance from the settlement, but now 250 m to the west of Mound 11. Red II also marks the starting point of specialized potting by the inhabitants of Mound 11, where both pottery decoration tools and kilns were excavated. [...] A significant change in spatial organization involved the merging of formerly discrete mounds into elongated pairs of contiguous mounds. By at the latest Red III (and likely Red II), structures atop mounds were organized as composite buildings, combining circular and rectangular cells to form room blocks topped with paved terraced roofs. Activities, including food preparation such as grinding, shifted to exterior unpaved surfaces. This transformation indicates the appearance of a built environment focused more on extra-household interactions, as opposed to the discrete but enclosed setting of earlier periods.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 30)§REF§ " }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 636, "name": "et_jimma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma", "start_year": 1790, "end_year": 1932 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. Under the short reign of Abbu Bok’a construction of mosques increased. “He built many mosques, and ordered that mosques be built in each of the sixty provinces.” §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 43) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 638, "name": "so_tunni_sultanate", "long_name": "Tunni Sultanate", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Regarding the Tunni Sultanate coastal town of Barawa, “The town was divided into major quarters, each with a main masjid (mosque).” §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 51) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 639, "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques and religious structures were particularly plentiful in Marka, “Marka was the home of a number of revered Shiekhs, including the Afarta Aw Usman (‘the four famous Sheikhs named Osman’): Aw Usman Markayale, who is not only venerated in Marka but also has a mosque named after him with a small underground chamber that, according to popular belief, formed part of a corridor that led directly to the Ka’ba in the holy city of Makkah.” §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Ajuran Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5U3NQRMR/library §REF§ " }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 640, "name": "so_habr_yunis", "long_name": "Habr Yunis", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” §REF§ (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 642, "name": "so_geledi_sultanate", "long_name": "Sultanate of Geledi", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1911 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “There are a large number of mosques in Afgoi, and at least one in all but the tiniest villages.” §REF§ (Luling 1971, 162) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 644, "name": "et_harla_k", "long_name": "Harla Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The presence of Muslims at Harlaa is attested by a mosque, which was partially excavated. The stone built structure measured 970 cm length by 700 cm width and was radio carbon dated to Cal AD 1155-122.” §REF§ (Insoll 2017, 209) Insoll, Timothy. 2017. ‘First Footsteps in Archaeology of Harar, Ethiopia’. Journal of Islamic Archaeology. Vol 4:2. Pp 189-215. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/VQ38B374/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 645, "name": "et_hadiya_sultanate", "long_name": "Hadiya Sultanate", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1680 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Churches. “In the 1520s, Emperor Lebna Dengel led an expedition to Hadeya and ordered the construction of many churches and monasteries.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 200) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 646, "name": "so_ifat_sultanate", "long_name": "Ifat Sultanate", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1375 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques would have been communal buildings in the Ifat Sultanate. French archaeologists discovered mosques that date back to the Ifat period at the site of Nora in Ethiopia. “The excavation confirmed the urban character of the Nora site and made it possible to document on an archaeological plan, structures with a religious function (two mosques partially excavated, including the Friday mosques, among the mosques found) housing sectors, several outdoor spaces, as well as a funeral area.” §REF§ (Fauvelle et al. 2017, 239-295) Fauvelle, François-Xavier et al. 2007. “The Sultanate of Awfāt, its Capital and the Necropolis of the Walasma”, Annales Islamologiques. Vol. 51. Pp 239-295. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJCMAMX7/library §REF§ " }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 648, "name": "so_majeerteen_sultanate", "long_name": "Majeerteen Sultanate", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “The Majerteen Sultan professed Sunni Islam and adherence to the Shafi’i branch of Sunni Islamic law. They sponsored madrasas, built mosques, encouraged prayer and pilgrimage, and undertook many of the other obligations of Muslim rulers.” §REF§ (Smith 2021, 43) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “The Funj capital was at Sennar, perhaps from the time of Rubat, who reigned from 1616-17 to 1644-5 and founded the mosque there.” §REF§ (Holt 2008, 42) Holt, P.M. 2008. ‘Egypt, the Funj and Darfur’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c.1790. Edited by Richard Grey. Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WC9FQBRM/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 652, "name": "et_harar_emirate", "long_name": "Emirate of Harar", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1875 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “Harar is Ethiopia’s eleventh largest city and Islam’s fourth holiest town after Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem and, during the 17th and 18th centuries was an important center of Islamic scholarship and at one point had 99 mosques.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 207) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 653, "name": "et_aussa_sultanate", "long_name": "Early Sultanate of Aussa", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “Five hundred years later, when visited by Richard Burton, Zeila was much smaller, containing only a dozen stone houses and approximately 200 thatched ones, alongside six mosques and a saint’s tomb, the whole surrounded by a coral and rubble wall with five gates. It was still a centre of caravan trade to the interior as well as functioning as the port for the sultanate of Aussa, Harar and the whole of southern Ethiopia.” §REF§ (Insoll 2003, 59-61) Insoll, Timothy. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/KXWC265V/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 675, "name": "se_saloum_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum", "start_year": 1490, "end_year": 1863 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “In their heyday as royal capitals [Kahone (Saloum), Diakhao (Sine), and Lambaye (Baol)] these towns were not predominantly Muslim. Muslims at court would have lived, and built their mosque, in a peripheral neighbourhood, not on the central square.” §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 676, "name": "se_baol_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Baol", "start_year": 1550, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “In their heyday as royal capitals [Kahone (Saloum), Diakhao (Sine), and Lambaye (Baol)] these towns were not predominantly Muslim. Muslims at court would have lived, and built their mosque, in a peripheral neighbourhood, not on the central square.” §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 677, "name": "se_sine_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sine", "start_year": 1350, "end_year": 1887 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. “In their heyday as royal capitals Kahone (Saloum), Diakhao (Sine), and Lambaye (Baol) these towns were not predominantly Muslim. Muslims at court would have lived, and built their mosque, in a peripheral neighbourhood, not on the central square.” §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temple. “Known locally as Vettuvankoli, this temple was excavated from live rock probably during the reign of Varugana I, one of the great kings of the Pandya dynasty, who ruled from 765 until 815.” §REF§ (Pal 1988, 259) Pal, Pratapadiya. 1988. Indian Sculpture: 700-1800 Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/GI668E2K/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 698, "name": "in_cholas_1", "long_name": "Early Cholas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temples. “Senganan [Kochchenganan], the Chola king famed in legends for his devotion to Siva figures as the victor in battle of Por against the Chera Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera king was imprisoned and later released. Senganan Chola is said to have built 70 fine temples of Shiva.” §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 350) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 699, "name": "in_thanjavur_maratha_k", "long_name": "Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom", "start_year": 1675, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temples. “Five temples attached to the Devasthanam in Thanjavur palace are dedicated to Krsna. They are (1) Navanita Krsna (2) Bhuloga Krsna (3)Mannarswami (4) Madanagopalaswami (5)Venugopalaswami. All of them seem to have come up during the rule of the Nayaks of Thanjavur and the Mahrattas from the 16th century onwards.”§REF§ (Padmaja 2002, 96) Padmaja, T. 2002. Temples of Krsna in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnadu. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5MFKBQ9E/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temples. “Tirucendur, south of the Tambraparani delta, has a well known temple of Murukan, said in myths to protect the Pandyas from incursions from the sea.” §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 359) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques and temples. “The Navaiyat dynasty came to power when Saadutullah Khan was appointed subadhar, or chief of military and revenue officer of the newly established Mughal subah of Arcot in 1710. The Navaiyats, wanting to take advantage of the relative weakness of the links to the Mughal centre, and wanting to carve out an independent dynastic rule for themselves, quickly fell into the traditional pattern of empire-building. They extended existing citadels like Vellore and Gingee by ‘importing’ North Indian traders, artisans and soldiers; they established a number of new market centres; they founded and endowed mosques; and they invited poets, artists and scholars and Sufi holy men to the new capital of Arcot.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temples. The following quote is referring to Hindu temples in the port city of Mamallapuram. “The city is known for several structural temples, rock cut caves and monolithic shrines and huge panels and bas reliefs that are considered to be the greatest examples of Pallava art. This tradition of stone carving is still alive among artists scattered in the area […] This temple was built by Mamalla for the worship of Vishnu. His successor Narasimhavarman II added two shrines dedicated to Shiva.” §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 569) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 703, "name": "in_kalabhra_dyn", "long_name": "Kalabhra Dynasty", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temple. “The Muttaraiyar and the Kalabhras are equated each other by T.A. Gopinath Rao. The Vaikunt Perumal Temple inscription at Kanci speaks of a Muttaraiyar coming to receive Nandivarman Pallavarnalla II at the latter’s coronation. A mutilated inscription found in the Vaikuta Temple at Kaci styles Suvaran Maran as Kalavara-Kalavan. The word Kalavan (Tamil) perhaps became Kalabhra in Sanskrit.” §REF§ (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temples. “Five temples attached to the Devasthanam in Thanjavur palace are dedicated to Krsna. They are (1) Navanita Krsna (2) Bhuloga Krsna (3)Mannarswami (4) Madanagopalaswami (5)Venugopalaswami. All of them seem to have come up during the rule of the Nayaks of Thanjavur and the Mahrattas from the 16th century onwards.”§REF§ (Padmaja 2002, 96) Padmaja, T. 2002. Temples of Krsna in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnadu. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5MFKBQ9E/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Temples. “That the Madurai Nayak, chose the seated or standing Bull as their crest is proved by the flag staffs found in Madurai Minakshi temple and Subramanya temple at Thirupurankunram.” §REF§ (Nagaswamy 1981, 169) Nagaswamy, Ramachandran. 1981. Tamil Coins: A Study. Chennai: Institute of Epigraphy Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M4E8JD39/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 618, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV", "start_year": 1401, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the following, which pertains to the immediately preceding period. \"Specialized iron production shifted from the inhabitants of Mound 4 to those at Mound 11, and iron smelting remained set at a distance from the settlement, but now 250 m to the west of Mound 11. Red II also marks the starting point of specialized potting by the inhabitants of Mound 11, where both pottery decoration tools and kilns were excavated. [...] A significant change in spatial organization involved the merging of formerly discrete mounds into elongated pairs of contiguous mounds. By at the latest Red III (and likely Red II), structures atop mounds were organized as composite buildings, combining circular and rectangular cells to form room blocks topped with paved terraced roofs. Activities, including food preparation such as grinding, shifted to exterior unpaved surfaces. This transformation indicates the appearance of a built environment focused more on extra-household interactions, as opposed to the discrete but enclosed setting of earlier periods.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 30)§REF§ " }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 637, "name": "so_adal_sultanate", "long_name": "Adal Sultanate", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques would have been common communal buildings in the Adal Sultanate. “Some of the Arabic inscriptions on tombstones collected between the modern towns of Harar and Dire Dawa bear thirteenth-century dates, and show the existence of fairly well-developed Muslim communities in the region of Harar, which probably was an important centre of dispersal for many of the founders of other Muslim settlements further inland.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ " }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 651, "name": "et_gumma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Gumma", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. The following quote suggests that mosques were likely present. “Fourth, the Muslim resistance in Wallo seems also to have led to the growth of a Jihadic movement in the Gibe region. The Muslim clerics who made Islam the religion of the masses and nurtured Islamic culture in Wallo, brought the spirit of resistance with them to the Gibe region. This spirit of resistance grew into a Jihadic movement mainly in the kingdom of Gumma, which remained a hotbed of rebellion and Muslim resistance from 1887 to 1902.” §REF§ (Hassen 1992, 96) Hassen, Mohammed. ‘Islam as a Resistance Ideology Among the Oromo of Ethiopia.’ In In The Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list §REF§ " }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 654, "name": "so_isaaq_sultanate", "long_name": "Isaaq Sultanate", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests that mosques were likely present. “With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha afi School of Law).” §REF§ (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list §REF§ " }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 680, "name": "se_futa_toro_imamate", "long_name": "Imamate of Futa Toro", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1860 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quotes suggest that communal buildings such as mosques were likely present within the Imamate of Futa Toro. “In Mauritania and Senegambia, there was a network of rural schools, at which the Koran and certain important works of technology and law were studied. The more learned marabouts studied at different schools. Some of these schools seem to have played an important revolutionary role. Thus, according to Futa Toro traditions, all the major leaders of the 1776 torodbe revolt studied at Pir Saniokhor in Cayor.” §REF§ (Klein 1972, 428) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection §REF§ “The tokolor revolution resulted in the replacement of one elite by another, and in the creation of a society within which the Sharia, the Muslim law, was enforced.” §REF§ (Klein 1972, 429) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 682, "name": "se_jolof_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Jolof", "start_year": 1549, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. The following quote suggests that Mosques were likely present.“By and large, Islam gained slowly moving towards the forest regions and reaching the Atlantic. Along the Senegal River valley, Islam’s ever presence was visible in many aspects of life. Here, Muslim holy men (marabouts) already occupied spiritual spaces with large followings in the Kingdom of Jolof though it was not until the end of the nineteenth century that the whole region accepted Islam.” §REF§ (Saho 2020, 151) Saho, Bala. 2020 ‘Islam in West Africa: Diffusion and Growth’ In The Palgrave Handbook of Islam in Africa. Edited by Fallou Ngom et. al. Cham, Switerzland: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9QVB5IC2/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 612, "name": "ni_nok_1", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " " }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 615, "name": "ni_nok_2", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -900, "end_year": 0 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "NO_DESCRIPTION" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 619, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I", "start_year": 701, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The first nondomestic structures identified at Kirikongo are found from Red II and Red III on the peak of Mound 4. This multistory complex has formal similarities to a Bwa ancestor house, which today when associated with the founding house is a sacrificial shrine to the village ancestors, the meeting place for the village council, and maintained by the village headman. Given the presence of these ritual structures, cross-cutting communal activities, and a communally focused built environment, it is possible that an institution similar to the village Do was in existence.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 31)§REF§ " }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The near-absence of archaeologically identified settlements makes it particularly challenging to infer most building types. \"While the historical sources provide a vague picture of the events of the first 500 years of the Kanem-Borno empire, archaeologically almost nothing is known. [...] Summing up, very little is known about the capitals or towns of the early Kanem- Borno empire. The locations of the earliest sites have been obscured under the southwardly protruding sands of the Sahara, and none of the later locations can be identified with certainty.\"§REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 104-110)§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 663, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_1", "long_name": "Oyo", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1535 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977).\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 151-152)§REF§ Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: \"Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known.\"§REF§(Law 1977: 33)§REF§ Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable." }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1798, "year_to": 1897, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “All these people own communal worshipping houses of the sort which G. Massaja, a Catholic priest, saw in 1859 while he was engaged in missionary activities in Kafa.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 272) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ We have chosen 1798 CE as a cutoff point because the period 1798 CE -1821 CE has been described as “the height of the Kafa empire”. §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 678, "name": "se_waalo_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo", "start_year": 1287, "end_year": 1855 }, "year_from": 1682, "year_to": 1855, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. The following quote was made by Le Maire in 1682 regarding the Waalo monarchy and Islam. “’The nobles are more attached to it because they are usually close to one of the Moorish marabouts and thus these scoundrels take full credit for their spirit. They make their Sala, the minor people do not do anything or do it only more of less in a mosque. The king and the nobles have them, they are covered with straw like the other houses.’”§REF§ (Barry 2012, 39) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1390, "year_to": 1797, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“All these people own communal worshipping houses of the sort which G. Massaja, a Catholic priest, saw in 1859 while he was engaged in missionary activities in Kafa.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 272) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ We have chosen 1798 CE as a cutoff point because the period 1798 CE -1821 CE has been described as “the height of the Kafa empire”. §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 678, "name": "se_waalo_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo", "start_year": 1287, "end_year": 1855 }, "year_from": 1287, "year_to": 1681, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Mosques. The following quote was made by Le Maire in 1682 regarding the Waalo monarchy and Islam. “’The nobles are more attached to it because they are usually close to one of the Moorish marabouts and thus these scoundrels take full credit for their spirit. They make their Sala, the minor people do not do anything or do it only more of less in a mosque. The king and the nobles have them, they are covered with straw like the other houses.’”§REF§ (Barry 2012, 39) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 280, "name": "hu_hun_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of the Huns", "start_year": 376, "end_year": 469 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Bathhouses. “Finally they reached Attila's base, which Priscus describes as a 'very large village'… The only stone building was a bath-house, constructed on the orders of one of Attila's leading supporters, Onegesius. He had had the stone imported from the Roman province of Pannonia across the Danube. It was built by a Roman prisoner of war who had hoped to secure his release after the job was done. Unhappily for him, he had made himself indispensable and was kept on to manage the bath-house.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 44) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. stores; arcades; bazaars; restaurants; churches; schools; railway and tram stations. “The parián or arcaded market that housed leading mercantile establishments stood at the town center, and along the adjoining streets and districts stood the workshops of guild members lending their trade’s name to the street on which they were concentrated. Here and there stood pulperías, the indispensible institution that functioned as stores, pawnshops, restaurants, gathering places, and news exchanges, providing a one-stop financial and commercial center akin to a modern convenience store offering lottery tickets, money orders, a version of the modern ATM, and a community bulletin board.”§REF§(Bunker and Macias-Gonzalez 2011: 58) Bunker, Steven B. and Macías-González, Víctor M. 2011. “Consumption and Material Culture from Pre-Contact through the Porfiriato,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp54–82. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDIQ5VE7§REF§ “The “modernity” of the capital, while exemplary in its scale and expense, paled with the cost of public works in the regions; railroads crisscrossed the country by the 1880s, electrical and telephone utilities by the 1890s, and vast bonds were issued to finance new state and municipal buildings, schools, and trams.”§REF§(Bunker and Macias-Gonzalez 2011: 68) Bunker, Steven B. and Macías-González, Víctor M. 2011. “Consumption and Material Culture from Pre-Contact through the Porfiriato,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp54–82. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDIQ5VE7§REF§ " }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Religious sites, palaces and castles, taverns and inns, universities, colleges and schools etc etc." }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Places of worship; workplaces such as mills; schools; universities; libraries. “Houses around the Old Town Hall, the palace of the lords of Kunštát, parts of the university residences and a number of churches of the time provide indices of an extraordinary amount of construction activity, influenced by western architecture. Gothic cathedrals were built in a number of towns (Brno, Olomouc, Hradec Králové, Plzeň and elsewhere), as well as in the subject towns (foremost of which was Český Krumlov, which belonged to the Rožmberks)… In the villages, alongside the small numbers of rich farmers, owners of iron and saw mills, and above all of flour mills, there was the more numerous class of labourers of small to middling wealth, whose rents ensured the income of their authorities.”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 146) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§ “Before the Hussite Revolution, the university in Prague had a vibrant law faculty who studied across Europe and taught primarily canon law and sometimes Roman law, as well as a library of standard legal texts. In addition to the law faculty, the contents of two monasteries’ libraries demonstrate the more general availability of legal resources with the kingdom of Bohemia.”§REF§(Grant 2014: 38-39) Grant, Jeanne E. 2014. For the Common Good: The Bohemian Land Law and the Beginning of the Hussite Revolution, East Central and Eastern in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCJGUZZZ§REF§ " }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Churches, chapels, cathedrals.§REF§Christie 1998: 96. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Churches, shops, public houses, town halls, factories, mills, railway and port stations, etc.§REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 13, 15, 20, 58. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 576, "name": "us_chaco_bonito_3", "long_name": "Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1140 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Plazas; kivas; terraces. “The Chacoan people created an urban center of spectacular public architecture by employing formal design, astronomical alignments, geometry, unique masonry, landscaping, and engineering techniques that allowed multi-storied construction for the first time in the American Southwest. The people built monumental public and ceremonial buildings in the canyon. The buildings were massive, multi-storied masonry structures of rooms, kivas, terraces, and plazas.”§REF§(“Chaco Culture”) “Chaco Culture” NPS Museum Collections, accessed May 8, 2023, https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/chcu/index1.html. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NMRVDA5I§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Churches, shops, public houses, town halls, factories, mills, railway and port stations, etc.§REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 13, 15, 20, 58. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Communal_building", "communal_building": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Churches, inns, pubs, shops, universities, colleges; government buildings etc. “London Bridge (see plate 11) had linked the north and south banks of the Thames since the twelfth century. In fact, London mostly developed on its northern bank; to the south was the suburb of Southwark. Here, on the fringe of the city’s jurisdiction, flourished theaters such as the Rose and the Globe, bear-gardens (for bear- and bull-baiting), brothels, and taverns. In short, if you wanted an exciting – or a dangerous – time in London, you headed across the bridge.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 196) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§ “’The City’ is modern shorthand for the financial district which still sits within the square mile once bounded by the old Roman city walls. Here, ca. 1603, might be found the Guildhall, London’s city hall, where its lord mayor and 25 aldermen met to govern the metropolis; numerous smaller halls which housed the livery companies associated with each trade; Cheapside, a broad street lined with shops; and the Royal Exchange, built by Sir Thomas Gresham (ca. 1518–79) in 1566–7, where merchants met to strike deals.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 198) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§" } ] }