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{ "count": 465, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/articles/?format=api&page=10", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/articles/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 402, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Barter existed.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 441) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Furs, skins, slaves, beeswax exported.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 439) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"In the pre-Kievan era cattle and furs had served as mediums of exchange and foreign coins had also been used. In the Kievan centuries metallic money came into general use. Coins were minted from the first half of the eleventh century on into the first quarter of the next century. Small silver bars were also used, and foreign coins had wide circulation.\"§REF§(Blum 1971, 15) Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 403, "polity": { "id": 535, "name": "ug_bunyoro_k_2", "long_name": "Bito Dynasty", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": "\"The medium of exchange was barter\", though cowrie shells were also used, at least in the 19th century <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, pp. 447-450]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 404, "polity": { "id": 534, "name": "ug_bunyoro_k_1", "long_name": "Cwezi Dynasty", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1699 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": "In the 19th century CE, \"[t]he medium of exchange was barter\", though cowrie shells were also used, at least in the 19th century <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, pp. 447-450]</a> . Given likely continuity in economic matters between this period and preceding centuries (Uzoigwe <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, p. 247]</a> specifically notes that the Babito \"do not seem to have introduced any fundamental economic changes\" or \"any revolutionaty social reorganization\"), it seems reasonable to infer that that this statement applies to preceding centuries as well.", "description": null }, { "id": 405, "polity": { "id": 774, "name": "mw_early_maravi", "long_name": "Early Maravi", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 409, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 284, "name": "hu_avar_khaganate", "long_name": "Avar Khaganate", "start_year": 586, "end_year": 822 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": "no data.", "description": null }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Acquired emeralds from Blemmyes in the Nubian desert and sold them in Northern India. Sent oxen, salt and iron to trade with Sasu (south-west Ethiopia) for gold.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 387) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Imported Syrian and Italian wine and olive-oil, cereals, grape-juice and wine from Egypt, wheat, rice, bosmor, seasame oil, sugar-cane from India. Foreign fabrics.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 387, 389) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "Acquired emeralds from Blemmyes in the Nubian desert and sold them in Northern India. Sent oxen, salt and iron to trade with Sasu (south-west Ethiopia) for gold. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 387]</a> This trade or trade like it presumably continued even whilst overall trade declined during the 600-800 CE period.", "description": null }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Ceylonese bought elephants from Pagan Burma.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 129-130) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ Economy monetized with silver bars only in the thirteenth century.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 414, "polity": { "id": 226, "name": "ib_banu_ghaniya", "long_name": "Banu Ghaniya", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Banu Ghaniya had a \"commercial base that enabled them to maintain links with Aragon, Genoa and Pisa against the Almohads\" in the Balaeric Islands.§REF§(Saidi 1997, 20) O Saidi. The Unification of the Maghrib under the Almohads. UNESCO. 1997. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Paris.§REF§" }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Taxes levied in kind until Byzantine rule after 1018 CE.§REF§(Crampton 2005, 22) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 416, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Taxes levied in kind until Byzantine rule after 1018 CE.§REF§(Crampton 2005, 22) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 399, "name": "in_chaulukya_dyn", "long_name": "Chaulukya Dynasty", "start_year": 941, "end_year": 1245 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": "\"[W]ith the exception to two gold and six silver coins recently discovered, and ascribed to Siddharaja, no other coins of the Chaulukyas have yet been found. [...] The following facts therefore must be considered [...]. In the Chaulukya records coins are frequently mentioned. [...] Not a single reference to barter is found in the literature of the period which contains many instances of payment in cash. [...] Two gold coins with the legend of Siddharaja have been discovered in the Uttara Pradesa and these two have been assigned to Jayasimha. Since then four silver coins of Jayasimha have been found. [...] Lastly coins are known to have been in use in Gujarat from very early times. [...] [W]e shall have to assume that money in the shape of coins was habitually and extensively used during the Chaulukya period in Gujarat as the normal medium of exchange, and that at least part of the coins in use were issued by the Chaulukya kings.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, pp. 268-270]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 418, "polity": { "id": 246, "name": "cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period", "start_year": -740, "end_year": -489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 299, "name": "ru_crimean_khanate", "long_name": "Crimean Khanate", "start_year": 1440, "end_year": 1783 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Tribute. \"the khan remained sovereign over his own domains, minting his own coins, and collecting his own tribute from the Poles, Muscovites, and other nomadic peoples of the Kipchak steppe.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 7) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 774, "name": "mw_early_maravi", "long_name": "Early Maravi", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"Some of the objects recovered at Mankhamba, such as copper rings and bangles, were used as a medium of exchange. One type of object not recovered at the site, but nearby, was the copper ingot. In 1967, a man removing a tree stump on the adjacent Dedza escarpment, not far from Mankhamba, found a hoard of eight, large H-shaped ingots (see Plate 12.1). This shows that despite their absence in the Mankhamba excavations, these objects circulated in the area. Their absence in the excavation was value-related as ingots were expensive objects and unlikely to be disposed of carelessly.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IT7NS8P7\">[Juwayeyi 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 421, "polity": { "id": 533, "name": "ug_early_nyoro", "long_name": "Early Nyoro", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1449 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": "In the 19th century, \"[t]he medium of exchange was barter\", though cowrie shells were also used. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, pp. 447-450]</a> Given general pattern of increasing complexity through time in the region <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6ITEA4NM\">[Taylor_Robertshaw 2000, pp. 17-19]</a> , it seems reasonable to infer that that this statement applies to preceding centuries as well.", "description": null }, { "id": 422, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": "\"It was, however, from the beginning of the nineteenth century that commodities such as cloth, beads and cowrie shells crystallised into a monetary form, and became part of a monetary system characterised by the adoption of standard units of currency (Pallaver forthcoming).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C62TFXBJ\">[Pallaver_Wynne-Jones_LaViolette 2017]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 423, "polity": { "id": 218, "name": "ma_idrisid_dyn", "long_name": "Idrisids", "start_year": 789, "end_year": 917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "Fez especially became rich with trade from the influx of merchants and artisans with the refugees from conflicts in al-Andalus and Ifriqiya.§REF§(Pennell 2013) C R Pennell. 2013. Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 369, "name": "ir_jayarid_khanate", "long_name": "Jayarid Khanate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1393 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "Ana: Being part of the silk route might imply they have silk as articles of exchange, nevertheless there is no direct evidence.", "description": null }, { "id": 425, "polity": { "id": 389, "name": "in_kamarupa_k", "long_name": "Kamarupa Kingdom", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 1130 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"All business transactions were carried by barter.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 165]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 273, "name": "uz_kangju", "long_name": "Kangju", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Kangju traded goods with their C Asian neighbors, with China and Rome; thus they fully participated in SR trade; they even minted their own coins (Roudik 2007, 18). \"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 395, "name": "in_karkota_dyn", "long_name": "Karkota Dynasty", "start_year": 625, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"Besides the cowree and the copper coins of Puntsu, etc., we find in ancient Kashmir another medium of exchange, namely rice.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 232]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 428, "polity": { "id": 298, "name": "ru_kazan_khanate", "long_name": "Kazan Khanate", "start_year": 1438, "end_year": 1552 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Kazan, the sizeable capital, which had a population of about 20,000, was the centre of the Volga trade, and was inhabited by Tatar merchants, craftsmen, clergymen and scholars. The literature, historiography and architecture of the Kazan Tatars formed an outpost of Islamic civilization on the eastern fringe of Europe.\"§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 25) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 241, "name": "ao_kongo_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo", "start_year": 1491, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Kongo's overseas trade in slaves thus developed in the first decades of contact with Europe as a form of international currency, complementing the kingdom's other exports in ivory, copper, and cloth.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014,9) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§ Slaves used as \"gifts and payments for overseas transactions.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014,9) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§ \"Tribute was paid using raffia cloth, ivory, hides, slaves, and foodstuffs, as well as with currency in the form of nzimbu (cowry) shells. The king tightly controlled this currency, which gradually depreciated as slaves became the most sought-after trading commodity during the Portuguese era.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 29) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§" }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 290, "name": "ge_georgia_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Georgia II", "start_year": 975, "end_year": 1243 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "it_sicily_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 257, "name": "cn_later_qin_dyn", "long_name": "Later Qin Kingdom", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 417 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Foreign coins and/or coins from historical states that no longer existed. \"As north China plunged into chaos during the fourth century, perhaps an eighth of the entire northern Chinese population may have fled to the relative shelter and stability of the south. ... Those people who remained in the north, and who survived, meanwhile huddled behind thousands of improvised local fortifications. Trade and commerce ground to a virtual halt in the north during this period. No new coins were issued in north China for almost two hundred years.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58-59) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 256, "name": "cn_later_yan_dyn", "long_name": "Later Yan Kingdom", "start_year": 385, "end_year": 409 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Foreign coins and/or coins from historical states that no longer existed. \"As north China plunged into chaos during the fourth century, perhaps an eighth of the entire northern Chinese population may have fled to the relative shelter and stability of the south. ... Those people who remained in the north, and who survived, meanwhile huddled behind thousands of improvised local fortifications. Trade and commerce ground to a virtual halt in the north during this period. No new coins were issued in north China for almost two hundred years.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58-59) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 212, "name": "sd_makuria_k_1", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"In Upper Nubia throughout the medieval period, as in most other periods of its history, there was no currency and, therefore, all trade was achieved by barter. Ibn Selim notes that neither the dinar nor the dirham are of any use and that all transactions are carried out by the exchange of slaves, cattle, camels, iron tools and grains.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 203]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 215, "name": "sd_makuria_k_2", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II", "start_year": 619, "end_year": 849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Trade continued between Nubia and Egypt despite Arab raids.§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 187) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Makurian traders \"sold ivory to Byzantium and copper and gold to Ethiopia.\"§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 189) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"In Upper Nubia throughout the medieval period, as in most other periods of its history, there was no currency and, therefore, all trade was achieved by barter. Ibn Selim notes that neither the dinar nor the dirham are of any use and that all transactions are carried out by the exchange of slaves, cattle, camels, iron tools and grains.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 203) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 219, "name": "sd_makuria_k_3", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom III", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Trade continued between Nubia and Egypt despite Arab raids.§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 187) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Makurian traders \"sold ivory to Byzantium and copper and gold to Ethiopia.\"§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 189) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"In Upper Nubia throughout the medieval period, as in most other periods of its history, there was no currency and, therefore, all trade was achieved by barter. Ibn Selim notes that neither the dinar nor the dirham are of any use and that all transactions are carried out by the exchange of slaves, cattle, camels, iron tools and grains.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 203) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Malacca was \"an important centre for the exchange and transhipment of spices from the Moluccas and began to attract traders who were mostly Gujarati and Iranian Muslims\".§REF§(? 1981, 254-255) H Scheel. G Jaschke. H Braun. F R C Bagley. B Spuler. W M Hale. T Koszinowski. H Khaler. F R C Bagley trans. 1981. The Muslim World. A Historical Survey. Part IV. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ In the early 1600s Malacca (the city) was, according to a contemporary observer, considered to be 'the market of all India, of China, and the Moluccas, and of other islands round about, from all which places ... arrive ships which come and go incessantly charged with an infinity of merchandises.'§REF§(Koh and Ho 2009, 10) Jaime Koh. Stephanie Ho. 2009. Culture and Customs of Singapore and Malaysia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.§REF§ Exports included tin, products of the jungle, sea products such as lignum aloes, camphor, pearl-shell; rhinoceros-horn, bezaors, ivory, incense and possibly pepper.§REF§(Wilkinson 1935, 26) R J Wilkinson. 1935. The Malacca Sultanate. Malacca Papers. Journal Malayan Branch. Vol. XIII. Part II.§REF§ \"A 'collecting centre for the spices' of the Archipelago, and a 'distributing centre for the textiles' of India (Wheatley 1966: 313-315), Melaka was so cosmopolitan that eighty-four languages were spoken there (Cortesao 1990: 269).\"§REF§(Milner 2011) Anthony Milner. 2011. The Malays. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester.§REF§ Nutmeg, mace and cloves from the Moluccas of Indonesia. Gold mined in Sumatra. Pepper. Sandalwood from Timor. Silks and porcelain from China. Textiles from Gujarat and Coromandel in India.§REF§(Matsuda 2012, 38) Matt K Matsuda. 2012. Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 235, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate_22222", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1415 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The material culture is generally crude if we compare it to that of other African Islamic sites: the ceramic does not present traces of glaze; few pieces of adornment were found, with the exception of cowries and a few imported pearls; metal objects were collected, including a few bundles of iron rods evoking the hakuna mentioned by al-‘Umari as the currency unit in force in the Ethiopian Islamic ‘Kingdoms.’”§REF§(Fauvelle et al. 2017, 239-295) Fauvelle, François-Xavier et al. 2007. “The Sultanate of Awfāt, its Capital and the Necropolis of the Walasma”, Annales Islamologiques. Vol. 51. Pp 239-295.§REF§" }, { "id": 439, "polity": { "id": 776, "name": "mw_maravi_emp", "long_name": "Maravi Empire", "start_year": 1622, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"Some of the objects recovered at Mankhamba, such as copper rings and bangles, were used as a medium of exchange. One type of object not recovered at the site, but nearby, was the copper ingot. In 1967, a man removing a tree stump on the adjacent Dedza escarpment, not far from Mankhamba, found a hoard of eight, large H-shaped ingots (see Plate 12.1). This shows that despite their absence in the Mankhamba excavations, these objects circulated in the area. Their absence in the excavation was value-related as ingots were expensive objects and unlikely to be disposed of carelessly.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IT7NS8P7\">[Juwayeyi 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 209, "name": "ma_mauretania", "long_name": "Mauretania", "start_year": -125, "end_year": 44 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The ancient trading center of Tingis served as the port of entry ... Famed as a foundation of the giant Antaios, it was actually one of the earliest Phoenician outposts, established by the eighth century BC on the western edge of a sheltered bay facing the southern Pillar of Herakles, immediately opposite the Spanish coast. ... by the second century BC, direct trade with Rome was an essential part of the local economy\".§REF§(Roller 2003, 47) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§ \"Trade penetrated to the interior, to Lixos and eventually to Volubilis, no later than the end of the second century BC. although it is probable that there were Roman contacts with western Mauretania well before that time. The primary commodities were olives and fish products, which would become the major exports at the time of Juba II.\"§REF§(Roller 2003, 47) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 345, "name": "ir_median_emp", "long_name": "Median Persian Empire", "start_year": -715, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"horses, mules, cattle and two-humped camels\" given as tribute to Assyrians §REF§Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. Media. In Gershevitch, I. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 2. The Median and Achaemenian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.84§REF§" }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 530, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Early Postclassic", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": "Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHF4S8D7\">[Flannery_Marcus 1996]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 531, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_b", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Late Postclassic", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": "Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHF4S8D7\">[Flannery_Marcus 1996]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"Some of the objects recovered at Mankhamba, such as copper rings and bangles, were used as a medium of exchange. One type of object not recovered at the site, but nearby, was the copper ingot. In 1967, a man removing a tree stump on the adjacent Dedza escarpment, not far from Mankhamba, found a hoard of eight, large H-shaped ingots (see Plate 12.1). This shows that despite their absence in the Mankhamba excavations, these objects circulated in the area. Their absence in the excavation was value-related as ingots were expensive objects and unlikely to be disposed of carelessly.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IT7NS8P7\">[Juwayeyi 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 313, "name": "ru_novgorod_land", "long_name": "Novgorod Land", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"its foreign trade made it the wealthiest and most cosmopolitan of all medieval Russian polities.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 465) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Reference to barter in private charters.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 471) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"its foreign trade made it the wealthiest and most cosmopolitan of all medieval Russian polities.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 465) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 446, "polity": { "id": 206, "name": "dz_numidia", "long_name": "Numidia", "start_year": -220, "end_year": -46 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Excavations by a German-Tunisian team in the southern part of Dougga have revealed evidence of housing from the Numidian settlement. ... there were a number of late second-century BCE Italian wine amphorae as well as Italian Campana black-glossed wars, common from the second century BCE onward, indicating trade with Italy.\"§REF§(Gill and Muskett. 2017, 338) David Gill. Georgina Muskett. Dougga. Paul G Bahn. ed. 2017. Archaeology: The Essential Guide to Our Human Past. Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C.§REF§ Italian merchant community at Cirta.§REF§(Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Numidian grain was exported to Rome. \"When the resulting civil war in Numidia disrupted grain supplies to Rome, some Romans called for war. Rome wanted to restore order to make sure it had access to the Numidian grain.\"§REF§(Burgan 2005, 25) Michael Burgan. 2005. Empire of Ancient Rome. Facts On File, Inc. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 447, "polity": { "id": 542, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy", "long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period", "start_year": 1873, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "It is assumed here that in addition to foreign currency, barter may have been practiced on the local level.", "description": null }, { "id": 448, "polity": { "id": 293, "name": "ua_russian_principate", "long_name": "Russian Principate", "start_year": 1133, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Barter existed.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 441) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Furs, skins, slaves, beeswax exported.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 439) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 449, "polity": { "id": 237, "name": "ml_songhai_1", "long_name": "Songhai Empire", "start_year": 1376, "end_year": 1493 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 450, "polity": { "id": 380, "name": "th_sukhotai", "long_name": "Sukhotai", "start_year": 1238, "end_year": 1419 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "1292 CE inscription reads 'they lead their cattle to trade or ride their horses to sell; whoever wants to trade in elephants, does so; whoever wants to trade in horses, does so; whoever wants to trade in silver and gold, does so.'§REF§(Wicks 1992, 172) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ Human beings sold in the market place.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 172) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 217, "name": "dz_tahert", "long_name": "Tahert", "start_year": 761, "end_year": 909 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Taxes could be paid in cattle and agricultural products: \"Yablb b. Zalghln al-Mazatl was a contemporary of the second Rustumid imam, cAbd al-Wahhab ibn Rustam and was a very wealthy man. According to al-Shammakhl, he owned 12,000 donkeys, 30,000 camels, and three million sheep. The imam is quoted as saying that had it not been for the tax paid in gold by himself, the agricultural products paid in by another wealthy Ibadi and the tax in cattle paid by Yablb b.Zalghln, the treasury of Tahart would have crashed.\"§REF§T.Lewicki, \"The Ibadites in North Africa and the Sudan to the fourteenth century,\" JWH 13 (1) (1971):107. al-Shammakhl citation pgs.204-5.§REF§§REF§Savage, E., 1990, Early medieval Ifriqiya, a reassessment of the Ibadiyya, pp.230§REF§" }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 271, "name": "ua_skythian_k_3", "long_name": "Third Scythian Kingdom", "start_year": -429, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null } ] }