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{ "count": 465, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/articles/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Hanifi, Shah. Connecting Histories in Afghanistan: Market Relations and State Formation on a Colonial Frontier. Stanford University Press, 2011. pp. 44-54§REF§ The Durrani empire produced coins at a number of mints in territories conquered during the initial expansion. Coins made of copper, gold, and silver were issued in Kandahar, Kabul, Peshawar, Attock, Dera Ghazi Khan, Multan, Sind, Lahore, and other regions in the local mints, leading to a wide dispersal of coinage. Multan served as a regional trade centre, with trade links between Afghanistan and the North, and links to access Chinese silk and caravans of indigo. §REF§Hanifi, Shah. Connecting Histories in Afghanistan: Market Relations and State Formation on a Colonial Frontier. Stanford University Press, 2011. pp. 44-54§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The currency of the Bactrian Greeks is one of the only means of providing a chronological history of the polity. Although initially issuing coinage under the auspices of the authority of the Seleucid King, rulers in Bactria quickly issued their own gold coins from the mint in Ai Khanoum. The Bactrian Kings also minted silver, bronze and nickel coins. There have also been limited discoveries of in the northern steppes that have been used to establish the boundaries of the polity by some scholars. §REF§Yarshater, CHI Ehasan. <i>The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3 (1, 2) the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods.</i> Cambridge (University Press), 1983. pp. 240-241§REF§ §REF§Sidky, H. The Greek Kingdom of Bactria: From Alexander to Eucratides the Great. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2000., pp.191-199.§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Hepthalites used their own coinage and also received a huge number of tribute from the Sasasian empire in the form of specially minted coins specifically used for this purpose. §REF§Mitchiner, Michael. \"Some Late Kushano-Sassanian and Early Hephthalite Silver Coins.\" East and West (1975): 157-165.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Kidarite monetary system \"created favourable conditions for maintaining the established traditions in local trades. ... flourishing international trade networks and wide trading links between various regions of the Kidarite state.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The economy of the Kushan Empire was based on trade.§REF§(Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Han economy became fully monetized. Wages were paid in cash. Taxes could be paid in cash (rather than labor services). §REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60)§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The clear functional division of labor between the different workshop areas at Zhengzhou means that efficiency in production was a priority. The presence of workshops specializing in the production of particular kinds of goods indicates that there must have been considerable trade of goods during the early Shang period.\" §REF§(Yuan 2013, 336-337)§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Hmong bartered where money was not accessible: 'Trade. - The Miao people do not know how to trade. Formerly, the Chinese brought salt and cloth into the Miao villages to exchange for their local products, but there were many dishonest traders, who cheated the Miao, giving rise to much confusion at times. Later the Chinese were officially prohibited from entering Miao villages to trade, but certain places were designated for sitting up markets, to be used once every five days, six times a month. The best-known markets among the Miao are the Te-sheng-ying, Kan-tzu-p'ing, Ya-pao-chai, Ya-la-ying, and Hsin-chai (Illus. 40) of Feng-huang; the Ta-hsin-chai of Kan-ch'eng; and the Wei-ch'eng, Lung-t'an, and Ma-li-ch'ang of Yung-sui. The important articles of trade are salt, cloth, animals, /Illus. 39, p. 73/ /Illus. 40 appears here/ and grains. Formerly, in trade between the Chinese and the Miao four small bowls were equal to one sheng. For cloth one measure between two hands was considered four ch'ih. The price of cattle and horses are set by the number of fists, regardless of age. The method of measurement by fist is like this. They take a bamboo splint and wind it around the fore ribs of the cow to set its girth, and then they measure the bamboo splint with their fists. A water buffalo which measures 16 fists is big, and a common yellow cow which measures 13 fists is large. The operation is called “fisting a cow.” In the case of horses age does come into consideration. They measure a horse from the ground to the saddle place by comparing it with a wooden rod. A 13-fist high one is big. A horse with few teeth but of many fists fetches a higher price, and the reverse fetches a lower price. This operation is called “comparing horses.” In recent times, in the sale of rice, cloth, and other articles, they have adopted the Chinese standards of weight and measurement, but “fisting cows” and “comparing horses” are sometimes still done.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 103§REF§ 'There are localities where the Ch'uan Miao barter a great deal because of the shortage of money, the differences being paid in cash. This is more common in northern Yunnan than in Szechwan where market-places and towns are more accessible. The Ch'uan Miao sell cattle, goats, sheep, horses, pigs, chickens, corn, rice, eggs and vegetables and purchase salt. cloth, silver ornaments, pottery and implements and tools made of iron.' §REF§Graham, David Crockett 1937. “Customs Of The Ch’Uan Miao\", 24§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The ornaments can also be used as token of love promise and mascot for children to ward off evil forces, or even tradable or stored directly as money. Therefore, the silver ornaments of Miao are not only decorations, but also a cultural carrier rooted in the social life of the Miao.'§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.arjumandsworld.com/blog/Miao-people-arjumand/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.arjumandsworld.com/blog/Miao-people-arjumand/</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Coded as present in preceding Late Shang polity." }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " As Northern Song." }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " (example: axes, cattle) Silver ingots treated as bullion used as currency until silver became too precious and the extensive use of paper notes resumed in the mid-17the century. §REF§(Chen, 2018, p.354)§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Total income figures ... were regularly given in units of revenue that might include a combination of strings of cash, shih of grain, ounces of silver, rolls of cloth, and bundles of grass.\"§REF§(Golas 2015, 140-141)§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"were usually collected in kind, that is, in grain and silk or hemp cloth.\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 240)§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Bronze coin constituted the fundamental form of money in China throughout the imperial period.\" §REF§(von Glahn 1996, 1)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Grain as tax payment. \"The third device was the relative freedom with which local magistrates set the exchange rates between nominal assessments in grain or silver and the number of copper cash per picul of grain or tael of silver which they would accept in full payment of the tax due.\"§REF§(Feuerwerker 1980, 61) Albert Feuerwerker. 1980. \"Economic Trends in the Late Ch'ing Empire, 1870-1911.\" In <i>The Cambridge History of China</i>, vol. 2, <i>Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911</i>, pt. 2, edited by John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu, 1-69. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Wealth measured in livestock, metal, crops and game. §REF§(Armstrong 2006, 32)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Taxes paid in grain, silk etc. \"As textiles were widely used in tax payments and public expenditure, they gained a status as the principle medium of exchange in the empire. §REF§(Liu 2015, 53)§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Taxes paid in grain, silk etc. \"As textiles were widely used in tax payments and public expenditure, they gained a status as the principle medium of exchange in the empire.\"§REF§(Liu 2015, 53)§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Silk.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 14)§REF§ \"Until late in the Spring and Autumn, cash was little used and taxes were in the form of rice, grain, or corvee labor. Marketplace transactions were by barter, and salaries of officials were paid in grain.\"§REF§(Redmond and Hon 2014, 44) Redmond, Geoffrey. Hon, Tze-Ki. 2014. Teaching the I Ching (Book of Changes). Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " “仰韶墓随葬品上不存在悬殊的现象，不存在私有制.” Absence of personal articles in tombs shows that there was no concept of private ownership among the Yangshao.§REF§(Yang, 2012, 313) Yang, Yubin. 2012. 20世纪仰韶文化的重要发现与研究. 袁广阔主编出版社.§REF§ -- <i>might one group have exchanged items with another group? such as animal skins for weapons?</i>" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Indians of Pocigueica exchanged gold and cloth for salt and fish with the coastal groups. \"Los indios de Pocigueica cambiaban oro y mantas por sal y pescado con los grupos de la costa (32, II, 18; 18, V, 282)\" §REF§(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1951, 90)§REF§ Fish or salt could be traded for goods with high symbolic value which took a quasi-monetary position in a large area of circulation; among them textiles, coca leaves, volcanic stone beads, and gold objects. \"Los bienes de este intercambio podían ser objetos como el pescado o la sal, a cambio de bienes de alto valor simbólico que tomaban una posi- ción cuasi-monetaria en una amplia área de circulación; entre éstos los textiles, hojas de coca, cuentas de rocas volcánicas (usadas en tiempos de la conquista para ofrendas, curación, intercambio, collares) (Reichel, 1951:85)) y objetos de oro.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1990, 65)§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', ‘1’ or 'No media of exchange or money' was present, not 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. The shuar engaged in barter trade with other Amerindian and settler populations: 'In all the tambos I found Winchester rifles which they had obtained from the rubber collectors by barter for rubber. But since the Indians most of the time do not have any [72] shot to go with it, these rifles are for the most part ornamental pieces. As a matter of fact, the Indians are not too fond of rifles since, they maintain, their report chases the game off.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 71p§REF§ 'Spears with iron points were generally in use when I visited the Indians. The point (see Figure 7) has a socket at the bottom. The shaft is fastened into the socket with the help of resin. The spear or lance has a length of 2 1/2 - 3 1/2 meters. They are said to obtain the iron points by way of barter from the Indians along the upper Senepa. The points are said to come from Ecuador. The spear with the iron point is called nánki by the Indians. Formerly spears were used shaped out of the wood of the chonta palm, and they still occur in isolated instances. The shape of their point is the same as the iron one, but its cross-section shows a somewhat concave outline. Shaft and point are made out of one piece. These chonta lances are called angös.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 71§REF§ 'In former years the Indians came as far as Bella Vista and later even to Bagua Chica in order to exchange parrots and other animals for articles of everyday use. Raimondi tells us that in 1845 the Aguarunas destroyed at the same time the mestizo-settlements [47] Puyaya and Copallín, the one situated on the right bank of the Marañón River, somewhat below the Rentema, the other on the left bank.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 46p§REF§ When dealing with white intermediaries or patrones, exchange rates between different types of goods were informal but somewhat regular. [Shuar parties would occasionally travel to colono settlements to trade , and even travel up to Andean cities to trade gold powder against metal tools. There are records of such incursions in last quarter of 18th century and again between 1850 and 1880.] 'In order to get articles that were valuable to them the Indians started to collect the products of their forests. In exchange for rubber, various resins, canoes, Maní, yucca, bananas, tamed animals and parrots the Indians ask for Winchester repeating arms, rifles and the necessary ammunition, axes, knives, scissors, needles, fishhooks, mirrors, cotton wares, sewing thread, etc. At that time the rate of exchange was the following: For a small canoe for six people they would receive an ordinary single-barrelled rifle (European value perhaps 10 Marks). For a hen or a large bunch of bananas they would receive one vara (84 cm.) of Tocuyo (thin, unbleached cotton, muslin?). In exchange for a basket (15 liter) of ground-nuts (maní) they could barter 4 vara (336 cm.) of Tocuyo. I have witnessed it several times in Nazaret that the Indians were terribly cheated with regard to weight when they made their rubber deliveries to the white men, and I could see it from the expression on their faces that they were aware of the fraud.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 48§REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', ‘1’ or 'No media of exchange or money' was present, not 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'. The shuar engaged in barter trade with other Amerindian and settler populations: 'In all the tambos I found Winchester rifles which they had obtained from the rubber collectors by barter for rubber. But since the Indians most of the time do not have any [72] shot to go with it, these rifles are for the most part ornamental pieces. As a matter of fact, the Indians are not too fond of rifles since, they maintain, their report chases the game off.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 71p§REF§ 'Spears with iron points were generally in use when I visited the Indians. The point (see Figure 7) has a socket at the bottom. The shaft is fastened into the socket with the help of resin. The spear or lance has a length of 2 1/2 - 3 1/2 meters. They are said to obtain the iron points by way of barter from the Indians along the upper Senepa. The points are said to come from Ecuador. The spear with the iron point is called nánki by the Indians. Formerly spears were used shaped out of the wood of the chonta palm, and they still occur in isolated instances. The shape of their point is the same as the iron one, but its cross-section shows a somewhat concave outline. Shaft and point are made out of one piece. These chonta lances are called angös.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 71§REF§ 'In former years the Indians came as far as Bella Vista and later even to Bagua Chica in order to exchange parrots and other animals for articles of everyday use. Raimondi tells us that in 1845 the Aguarunas destroyed at the same time the mestizo-settlements [47] Puyaya and Copallín, the one situated on the right bank of the Marañón River, somewhat below the Rentema, the other on the left bank.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 46p§REF§ When dealing with white intermediaries or patrones, exchange rates between different types of goods were informal but somewhat regular. [Shuar parties would occasionally travel to colono settlements to trade , and even travel up to Andean cities to trade gold powder against metal tools. There are records of such incursions in last quarter of 18th century and again between 1850 and 1880.] 'In order to get articles that were valuable to them the Indians started to collect the products of their forests. In exchange for rubber, various resins, canoes, Maní, yucca, bananas, tamed animals and parrots the Indians ask for Winchester repeating arms, rifles and the necessary ammunition, axes, knives, scissors, needles, fishhooks, mirrors, cotton wares, sewing thread, etc. At that time the rate of exchange was the following: For a small canoe for six people they would receive an ordinary single-barrelled rifle (European value perhaps 10 Marks). For a hen or a large bunch of bananas they would receive one vara (84 cm.) of Tocuyo (thin, unbleached cotton, muslin?). In exchange for a basket (15 liter) of ground-nuts (maní) they could barter 4 vara (336 cm.) of Tocuyo. I have witnessed it several times in Nazaret that the Indians were terribly cheated with regard to weight when they made their rubber deliveries to the white men, and I could see it from the expression on their faces that they were aware of the fraud.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 48§REF§ The region was hit economically by the crash of the rubber market: 'However, with the crash of the rubber market, the commercial pressure on Indian populations-more attenuated here than elsewhere (Harner 1972:30)-was diminished. The cauchero whom Karsten encountered on the Pastaza working with inland Achuarä in 1917, was gone on Karsten's return trip in 1929 (Karsten 1935:41, 43, 78). Furthermore, numbers of Peruvian military outposts that had served to oversee commercial activity were withdrawn (Karsten 1935:43, 78; Zanabria Zamudio 1969:157, 159, 195), and access to the entire Pastaza region was gradually curtailed. A Catholic missionary reported in 1928 that “the steamships of Iquitos which periodically make the service to the Alto Marañon, do not enter [the Pastaza], since it is almost completely lacking in civilized people and all exploitation of goma [latex] has been suspended because of the depreciation” (Misiones Pasionistas 1943:264).' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 94§REF§ 'Many sources of Western goods did vanish when the sudden depreciation in the value of wild Amazonian latex resulted in a major cutback in foreign investment and in the cessation of steamship transport to the region gradually coming to be occupied by Achuarä in Peru. However, commercial contact with the area was not wholly terminated. Some rubber extractors and colonists chose to remain after the crash as frontier agriculturalists or patrones of the Indians in the exploitation of other natural products. Furthermore, neither Peru nor Ecuador was fully willing to relinquish a tenuous hold over the northern tributaries of the Marañon and the as yet untapped resources to be found there.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 95§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Agricultural economy." }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Payment in agricultural goods. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 138-139)§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Payment in agricultural goods. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 138-139)§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Demotic ostraca discovered in a temple attest to the villages’ existence from the late 26th to early 30th dynasties. The texts - still unpublished - often record transactions with water. Farmers bought the right to have water flow into their fields for a number of days and promised part of their yields in return. The contracts are dated in the traditional Egyptian way according to the regnal years of kings. They include both Persians and those who ruled when Egypt was independent from the empire. The changes in government did not affect how the records were kept.\" §REF§(Van de Mieroop 2011, 307)§REF§ Yields used to buy the right to have access to water." }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " External trade: \"From the fourteenth century on, Mamluk coins were minted in gold brought all the way from Bambuk and Bouré around the sources of the Niger and the Senegal. It was paid for mostly in Egyptian textiles which were greatly sought after in the western Sudan.\"§REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 19) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Hekanakhte correspondence has evidence for \"the purchase of land and commodities by barter with copper, oil, and linen.\"§REF§(Manning 2003, 173) Manning, J.G. in Mokyr, John ed. 2003. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History. Volume 1. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " all replaceable material goods - e.g. agricultural products, craft products, as well as metals (ingots)§REF§Krzyżaniak, L. 1980. Egipt przed piramidami. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. pg: 237.§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " All replaceable material goods - e.g. agricultural products, craft products, as well as metals (ingots)§REF§Krzyżaniak, L. 1980. Egipt przed piramidami. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. pg: 237.§REF§." }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " All replaceable material goods - e.g. agricultural products, craft products, as well as metals (ingots)§REF§Krzyżaniak, L. 1980. Egipt przed piramidami. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. pg: 237.§REF§." }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " List of items tax paid in for New Kingdom: Gold, rainment, chest of linen, \"large bolts\", silver, oxen, calves, necklace bead, \"1 two-year-old\" and \"two-year-olds\" (two-year-old what?), garments, grain, yearlings, pigeons, firstlings of the year, honey.§REF§(Ezzamel 2002, 20) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. 2002. Accounting working for the state: Tax assessment and collection during the New Kingdom, ancient Egypt. Accounting and business research. Volume 32. Issue 1. pp 17-39.§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"by far the most common were units of grain, copper, and silver (also popular was linen...)\"§REF§(Haring 2016) Haring, Ben. 2016. Economy. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/economy/?x=56&y=16\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/economy/?x=56&y=16</a>§REF§ List of items tax paid in for New Kingdom: Gold, rainment, chest of linen, \"large bolts\", silver, oxen, calves, necklace bead, \"1 two-year-old\" and \"two-year-olds\" (two-year-old what?), garments, grain, yearlings, pigeons, firstlings of the year, honey.§REF§(Ezzamel 2002, 20) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. 2002. Accounting working for the state: Tax assessment and collection during the New Kingdom, ancient Egypt. Accounting and business research. Volume 32. Issue 1. pp 17-39.§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Payment in agricultural goods. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 138-139)§REF§" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Payment in agricultural goods. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 138-139)§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"professional or mercenary soldiers received cash (opsonion or misthos) and food, whereas cleruchs were granted plots of land (kleroi).\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 118)§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"professional or mercenary soldiers received cash (opsonion or misthos) and food, whereas cleruchs were granted plots of land (kleroi).\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 118)§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Payment in agricultural goods. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 138-139)§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Taxes paid in silver and grain. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 979)§REF§" } ] }