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{ "count": 465, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/articles/?format=api&page=9", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/articles/?format=api&page=7", "results": [ { "id": 351, "polity": { "id": 686, "name": "tz_karagwe_k", "long_name": "Karagwe", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1916 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quotes suggests use of cattle as currency from before the 19th century. \"By the 19th century, both Milansi and Karagwe kingdoms were major players in a lucrative trade that involved the coast and the interior. [...] Before we move along to specific cases, it is imperative to note that before these kingdoms got into long-distance trade they must have started with short-distance trade which often appears naturally as a result of unequal distribution of natural resources and specialization. For example, not everyone in the community kept cattle though it played a central role in dowry payment. Thus, a farmer would barter cereals for cattle when a need for the latter arose and vice versa.\"§REF§(Mapunda 2009: 99) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9GV5C5NF/collection. §REF§ \"In the southern Sudan and some parts of East Africa - for example, in Karagwe - ivory was valued in terms of cattle, and this was one of the causes of the cattle raids carried out by ivory dealers. With the cattle they looted, they could trade for more ivory.\"§REF§(Beachy 1977: 221-222) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DUSE2PPU/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 352, "polity": { "id": 687, "name": "Early Niynginya", "long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 353, "polity": { "id": 689, "name": "rw_ndorwa_k", "long_name": "Ndorwa", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 354, "polity": { "id": 690, "name": "bu_burundi_k", "long_name": "Burundi", "start_year": 1680, "end_year": 1903 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 355, "polity": { "id": 691, "name": "rw_mubari_k", "long_name": "Mubari", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 356, "polity": { "id": 692, "name": "rw_gisaka_k", "long_name": "Gisaka", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 357, "polity": { "id": 694, "name": "rw_bugesera_k", "long_name": "Bugesera", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 358, "polity": { "id": 695, "name": "ug_nkore_k_2", "long_name": "Nkore", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 359, "polity": { "id": 616, "name": "si_pre_sape", "long_name": "Pre-Sape Sierra Leone", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"First, prior to the arrival of the first wave of [colonial] settlers [to Freetown in 1787] there existed no centralised currency system that resembled, for example, the gold dust of the Asante Kingdom (where the use of cowries was forbidden). Cowries were not generally much in use in the coastal and hinterland regions of Sierra Leone, and this led to acute problems in introducing coins that were of small enough denominations for local market transactions (in turn leading to problems with cut dollars in 1818).\"§REF§(Mew 2016: 199( Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U3D2FQIH/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 360, "polity": { "id": 617, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following suggests not only that cattle were no longer used as articles of exchange, but also the existence of system of exchange based on labor rather than physical currency. \"By the middle of Red II this material symbol of inequality, cattle, ceased to be commonly kept, despite the emergence of a drier environment more suitable for animal husbandry in the second millennium A.D. Historically, cattle served as social capital in many non-centralized Voltaic societies, enabling marriages and funerary celebrations, and representing wealth. Consequently, the rejection of cattle, in addition to limiting the accumulation of wealth, may also indicate the beginning of matrimonial compensation in agricultural labor, typical of modern autonomous village societies.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 30)§REF§" }, { "id": 361, "polity": { "id": 618, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV", "start_year": 1401, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following suggests not only that cattle were no longer used as articles of exchange, but also the existence of system of exchange based on labor rather than physical currency. \"By the middle of Red II this material symbol of inequality, cattle, ceased to be commonly kept, despite the emergence of a drier environment more suitable for animal husbandry in the second millennium A.D. Historically, cattle served as social capital in many non-centralized Voltaic societies, enabling marriages and funerary celebrations, and representing wealth. Consequently, the rejection of cattle, in addition to limiting the accumulation of wealth, may also indicate the beginning of matrimonial compensation in agricultural labor, typical of modern autonomous village societies.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 30)§REF§" }, { "id": 362, "polity": { "id": 621, "name": "si_sape", "long_name": "Sape", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"First, prior to the arrival of the first wave of [colonial] settlers [to Freetown in 1787] there existed no centralised currency system that resembled, for example, the gold dust of the Asante Kingdom (where the use of cowries was forbidden). Cowries were not generally much in use in the coastal and hinterland regions of Sierra Leone, and this led to acute problems in introducing coins that were of small enough denominations for local market transactions (in turn leading to problems with cut dollars in 1818).\"§REF§(Mew 2016: 199( Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U3D2FQIH/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 363, "polity": { "id": 656, "name": "ni_yoruba_classic", "long_name": "Classical Ife", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following suggests that strings, \"standard measurements of beads\" and possibly glass beads were used as \"money\". \"Given their quality as a high-value and low-bulk commodity, long-distance travelers likely carried Ifè glass beads across the Yorùbá world and the adjacent areas as a means of payment for provisions on their journeys. The durability and affective qualities of these dichroic beads, especially the most common sègi, and the guarantee of their supply and demand encouraged people to use them as a means of high-value exchange and for storing wealth. We are short of evidence on whether glass beads evolved to serve as a standard currency, especially as a means of pricing. However, strings and other standard measurements of beads were likely used for purchasing high-value products and services.\" §REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 107-108)§REF§" }, { "id": 364, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1750, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"The pastoral Fulbe constituted another category of royal ‘clients’. Dues were paid in cattle and given to the king during the traditional ceremonies.\" §REF§(Zahan 1967: 159) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 365, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1751, "year_to": 1897, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The pastoral Fulbe constituted another category of royal ‘clients’. Dues were paid in cattle and given to the king during the traditional ceremonies.\" §REF§(Zahan 1967: 159) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 366, "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": 1504, "year_to": 1699, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Textiles and salt. “While Funj still knew no (official) coins or currencies in the early seventeenth century beyond the market of Sinnar and the harbour of Suakin, with the exception of gold in form of gold dust or braclets, (Spanish) silver coins (from American mines) increasingly entered the empire in the seventeenth century. This led to an accelerated export of gold and the establishment of silver coins in regional and even local markets in the eighteenth century, when silver replaced textiles and salt as currencies of exchange. This led to an even stronger import of small silver coins and the development of an imperial mint. In the late eighteenth century, the Spanish silver peso had become the major currency.” §REF§ (Loimeier 2013, 148) Loimeier, Roman. 2013. Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HJTAUHA9/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 367, "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": 1700, "year_to": 1820, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Textiles and salt. “While Funj still knew no (official) coins or currencies in the early seventeenth century beyond the market of Sinnar and the harbour of Suakin, with the exception of gold in form of gold dust or braclets, (Spanish) silver coins (from American mines) increasingly entered the empire in the seventeenth century. This led to an accelerated export of gold and the establishment of silver coins in regional and even local markets in the eighteenth century, when silver replaced textiles and salt as currencies of exchange. This led to an even stronger import of small silver coins and the development of an imperial mint. In the late eighteenth century, the Spanish silver peso had become the major currency.” §REF§ (Loimeier 2013, 148) Loimeier, Roman. 2013. Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HJTAUHA9/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 368, "polity": { "id": 668, "name": "ni_nri_k", "long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì", "start_year": 1043, "end_year": 1911 }, "year_from": 1043, "year_to": 1499, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "A~P", "comment": null, "description": "“Thus, in spite of the radiocarbon dates, one is tempted to take the presence at Igbo-Ukwu of the manilla as a terminus post quem. Unfortunately, the origin and age of the manilla cannot yet be stated with any certainty. According to one legend, before the arrival of the Portuguese on the Guinea Coast, some Delta fishermen hauled up in their nets \"one or two bronze torques\" from an ancient wreck. They liked the look of these \"torques\", and when the Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century, the \"torques\" were shown to them with the request that copies be made. A certain number were thus introduced and, owing to the avidity with which these were accepted, smaller ones of much the same shape were imported in ever increasing numbers, until they formed the currency of the coastal regions, and gradually extended inward till they became the main medium of barter from the Niger to the Cross River.” §REF§Lawal, B. (1972). The Igbo-Ukwu 'Bronzes': a Search for the Economic Evidence. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 6(3), 313–321: 315. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HKIT5IE5/collection§REF§ “In West Africa, the most common form of copper (or copper-alloy) currency was the manilla, a circular or oval cross-section metal bar with flaring ends that was bent into a bracelet-like ring (Fig. 2.9). These were extremely common as a traditional currency well into the twentieth century in the Niger delta (Johansson 1967) and their use extended southward into the lower Congo (Johnston 1908). The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from the western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century (Herbert 1984), and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries (Shaw 1970; Connah 1975).” §REF§Bisson, M. S., Childs, T. S., De Barros, P., & Holl, A. F. C. (2000). Ancient African Metallurgy The Sociocultural Context (J. O. Vogel, Ed.). AltaMira Press: 114. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NPWPXZQ6/collection§REF§ “Writing on the purchase of yams, sheep and slaves by a Portuguese ship at Bonny about 1500, Duarte Pacheco Pereira remarked: our ships buy these things for copper bracelets, which are here greatly prized; for eight or ten bracelets you can obtain one slave.” §REF§Lawal, B. (1972). The Igbo-Ukwu 'Bronzes': a Search for the Economic Evidence. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 6(3), 313–321: 316. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HKIT5IE5/collection§REF§ “Amogu has, however, suggested that the manilla was introduced to the Guinea Coast only after the fifteenth century when \"the increasing trade between the Africans and the Europeans created a new demand for a standard currency\". P. A. Talbot, on the other hand, is inclined to think \"that this currency came down from a remote era and may even have originally been introduced from Egypt, as a penannular ring money was used there to a certain extent, or by Phoenician and Carthaginian traders\". Whatever the exact origin of this currency, all the evidence so far at our disposal suggest that it was a coastal phenomenon, and that it rose into prominence both as a medium of exchange and ornament only after the fifteenth century A.D. In other words, before being quantified by the European traders, the manilla would seem to have been a rare commodity which was, to all intents and purposes, confined to the Guinea Coast.” §REF§Lawal, B. (1972). The Igbo-Ukwu 'Bronzes': a Search for the Economic Evidence. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 6(3), 313–321: 316. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HKIT5IE5/collection§REF§ “More than by the inflationary import of manilla rings, cowries and iron during the 19th century, the Igbo economy was affected by an increasing import of cheap industrial goods from Europe. Hardwares fabricated in the growing British steel industry competed successfully with the craft products of local smiths. Cheap cotton from Manchester started to replace the various kinds of African cloth, while the missionary activities promoted European standards of prudery and an increasing consumption of textile. The salt formerly produced in the Niger delta was now imported almost as ballast from Liverpool (Jones fthcg.: 623). The European traders developed a monopoly in the salt trade by encouraging their partners, the African coastal chiefs, to prohibit salt production on the coast (Northrup 1978: 213).” §REF§Müller, B. (1985). Commodities as Currencies: The Integration of Overseas Trade into the Internal Trading Structure of the Igbo of South-East Nigeria (Les marchandises comme monnaies: l’intégration de la traite d’outremer dans la structure commerciale interne des Igbo du Sud-Est-Nigeria). Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 25(97), 57–77: 71. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4SWQS6N5/collection§REF§ “It would appear that by the eighteenth century much of the commercial transactions in Igboland were done in money. Using information gathered in the nineteenth century and early this century, one would discover that many currencies were used in pre-colonial Igboland. These included salt, umumu, cowries, manillas, brass rods and copper wires. […] information available to the present writer would tend to show that as much as one or two currencies might be dominant in one part, there was no area of Igboland where any of them would not have been recognized and used as money.” §REF§ Afigbo, A. E. (1981). Economic Foundations of Pre-Colonial Igbo Society. In Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture (pp. 124–144). University Press in association with Oxford University Press; 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5I5XITDA/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 369, "polity": { "id": 668, "name": "ni_nri_k", "long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì", "start_year": 1043, "end_year": 1911 }, "year_from": 1500, "year_to": 1911, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Thus, in spite of the radiocarbon dates, one is tempted to take the presence at Igbo-Ukwu of the manilla as a terminus post quem. Unfortunately, the origin and age of the manilla cannot yet be stated with any certainty. According to one legend, before the arrival of the Portuguese on the Guinea Coast, some Delta fishermen hauled up in their nets \"one or two bronze torques\" from an ancient wreck. They liked the look of these \"torques\", and when the Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century, the \"torques\" were shown to them with the request that copies be made. A certain number were thus introduced and, owing to the avidity with which these were accepted, smaller ones of much the same shape were imported in ever increasing numbers, until they formed the currency of the coastal regions, and gradually extended inward till they became the main medium of barter from the Niger to the Cross River.” §REF§Lawal, B. (1972). The Igbo-Ukwu 'Bronzes': a Search for the Economic Evidence. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 6(3), 313–321: 315. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HKIT5IE5/collection§REF§ “In West Africa, the most common form of copper (or copper-alloy) currency was the manilla, a circular or oval cross-section metal bar with flaring ends that was bent into a bracelet-like ring (Fig. 2.9). These were extremely common as a traditional currency well into the twentieth century in the Niger delta (Johansson 1967) and their use extended southward into the lower Congo (Johnston 1908). The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from the western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century (Herbert 1984), and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries (Shaw 1970; Connah 1975).” §REF§Bisson, M. S., Childs, T. S., De Barros, P., & Holl, A. F. C. (2000). Ancient African Metallurgy The Sociocultural Context (J. O. Vogel, Ed.). AltaMira Press: 114. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NPWPXZQ6/collection§REF§ “Writing on the purchase of yams, sheep and slaves by a Portuguese ship at Bonny about 1500, Duarte Pacheco Pereira remarked: our ships buy these things for copper bracelets, which are here greatly prized; for eight or ten bracelets you can obtain one slave.” §REF§Lawal, B. (1972). The Igbo-Ukwu 'Bronzes': a Search for the Economic Evidence. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 6(3), 313–321: 316. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HKIT5IE5/collection§REF§ “Amogu has, however, suggested that the manilla was introduced to the Guinea Coast only after the fifteenth century when \"the increasing trade between the Africans and the Europeans created a new demand for a standard currency\". P. A. Talbot, on the other hand, is inclined to think \"that this currency came down from a remote era and may even have originally been introduced from Egypt, as a penannular ring money was used there to a certain extent, or by Phoenician and Carthaginian traders\". Whatever the exact origin of this currency, all the evidence so far at our disposal suggest that it was a coastal phenomenon, and that it rose into prominence both as a medium of exchange and ornament only after the fifteenth century A.D. In other words, before being quantified by the European traders, the manilla would seem to have been a rare commodity which was, to all intents and purposes, confined to the Guinea Coast.” §REF§Lawal, B. (1972). The Igbo-Ukwu 'Bronzes': a Search for the Economic Evidence. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 6(3), 313–321: 316. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HKIT5IE5/collection§REF§ “More than by the inflationary import of manilla rings, cowries and iron during the 19th century, the Igbo economy was affected by an increasing import of cheap industrial goods from Europe. Hardwares fabricated in the growing British steel industry competed successfully with the craft products of local smiths. Cheap cotton from Manchester started to replace the various kinds of African cloth, while the missionary activities promoted European standards of prudery and an increasing consumption of textile. The salt formerly produced in the Niger delta was now imported almost as ballast from Liverpool (Jones fthcg.: 623). The European traders developed a monopoly in the salt trade by encouraging their partners, the African coastal chiefs, to prohibit salt production on the coast (Northrup 1978: 213).” §REF§Müller, B. (1985). Commodities as Currencies: The Integration of Overseas Trade into the Internal Trading Structure of the Igbo of South-East Nigeria (Les marchandises comme monnaies: l’intégration de la traite d’outremer dans la structure commerciale interne des Igbo du Sud-Est-Nigeria). Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 25(97), 57–77: 71. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4SWQS6N5/collection§REF§ “It would appear that by the eighteenth century much of the commercial transactions in Igboland were done in money. Using information gathered in the nineteenth century and early this century, one would discover that many currencies were used in pre-colonial Igboland. These included salt, umumu, cowries, manillas, brass rods and copper wires. […] information available to the present writer would tend to show that as much as one or two currencies might be dominant in one part, there was no area of Igboland where any of them would not have been recognized and used as money.” §REF§ Afigbo, A. E. (1981). Economic Foundations of Pre-Colonial Igbo Society. In Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture (pp. 124–144). University Press in association with Oxford University Press; 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5I5XITDA/collection§REF§ " }, { "id": 370, "polity": { "id": 683, "name": "ug_buganda_k_2", "long_name": "Buganda II", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1700, "year_to": 1879, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "It seems that cloth became currency in the decades or perhaps years immediately preceding colonialism. \"Cloth became increasingly accessible, and the old restrictions increasingly inoperative, particularly after the upheavals of the late 1880s. To some extent it represented a new currency. [...] As we have noted, pre-colonial Buganda never developed a purely monetary economy, and even during the later nineteenth century barter was an important method of exchange, existing alongside a cowry currency. Nevertheless, the information we have on nineteenth-century prices suggests that virtually everything had at least a nominal cowry value. Moreover, other currencies existed alongside cowries, and some undoubtedly pre-dated the latter. Roscoe mentions a \"small ivory disc\" which he terms 'sanga', ssanga being the Luganda term for either a tusk or ivory in general. This, Roscoe claimed, was one of the earliest forms of money in Buganda; although clearly indigenous and probably much older than the cowry shell, it also had a cowry value. One disc was apparently worth one hundred shells. Ivory played a dual role insofar as it was on the one hand a commodity valued for its own sake, and on the other a standard medium of exchange. The former role gradually took precedence over the latter, as demand for ivory from the coast increased, so that as the nineteenth century progressed, ivory as money all but disappeared. [...] A third pre-cowry currency has already been mentioned, namely the blue bead, and as we have also already noted, examples of beads have been excavated at Ntusi. From such archaeological evidence, it is possible to suggest that beads may be the oldest currency in the region.\"§REF§(Reid 2010: 122, 126-127) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H64W34U/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 371, "polity": { "id": 683, "name": "ug_buganda_k_2", "long_name": "Buganda II", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1880, "year_to": 1894, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " It seems that cloth became currency in the decades or perhaps years immediately preceding colonialism. \"Cloth became increasingly accessible, and the old restrictions increasingly inoperative, particularly after the upheavals of the late 1880s. To some extent it represented a new currency. [...] As we have noted, pre-colonial Buganda never developed a purely monetary economy, and even during the later nineteenth century barter was an important method of exchange, existing alongside a cowry currency. Nevertheless, the information we have on nineteenth-century prices suggests that virtually everything had at least a nominal cowry value. Moreover, other currencies existed alongside cowries, and some undoubtedly pre-dated the latter. Roscoe mentions a \"small ivory disc\" which he terms 'sanga', ssanga being the Luganda term for either a tusk or ivory in general. This, Roscoe claimed, was one of the earliest forms of money in Buganda; although clearly indigenous and probably much older than the cowry shell, it also had a cowry value. One disc was apparently worth one hundred shells. Ivory played a dual role insofar as it was on the one hand a commodity valued for its own sake, and on the other a standard medium of exchange. The former role gradually took precedence over the latter, as demand for ivory from the coast increased, so that as the nineteenth century progressed, ivory as money all but disappeared. [...] A third pre-cowry currency has already been mentioned, namely the blue bead, and as we have also already noted, examples of beads have been excavated at Ntusi. From such archaeological evidence, it is possible to suggest that beads may be the oldest currency in the region.\"§REF§(Reid 2010: 122, 126-127) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H64W34U/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 372, "polity": { "id": 591, "name": "gt_tikal_late_classic", "long_name": "Late Classic Tikal", "start_year": 555, "end_year": 869 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “Cacao was so precious that the beans were used as a kind of money by the Maya. Offering it as a drink was an impressive way of showing off Tikal’s wealth.”§REF§(Mann 2002: 25) Mann, Elizabeth. 2002. Tikal: The Centre of the Mayan World. New York: Mikaya Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VM7Q67Q8§REF§" }, { "id": 373, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In the early years of this polity (1240-50s) cloth bolts and squirrel pelts were used as currency in parts of the steppe and Russia.§REF§Atwood 2004: 205. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.§REF§" }, { "id": 374, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Coins were used as currency and there are no mentions of articles in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 375, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No reference made to Articles in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 376, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Articles have not been mentioned in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 377, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention of articles in the sources consulted thus far." }, { "id": 378, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention of articles in the sources consulted thus far." }, { "id": 379, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There is no mention in the sources that articles were used as a form of currency, and by this period the English currency system was well established." }, { "id": 380, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention of Articles used in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 381, "polity": { "id": 797, "name": "de_empire_1", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty", "start_year": 919, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Sources consulted thus far have not mentioned the use of articles." }, { "id": 382, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention of articles in the sources consulted thus far." }, { "id": 383, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention of the use of Articles in the sources consulted thus far." }, { "id": 384, "polity": { "id": 572, "name": "at_austro_hungarian_emp", "long_name": "Austro-Hungarian Monarchy", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention of Articles used in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 385, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Amber beads (and lesser used glass beads) are likely to have been used as a form of exchange as evidenced by those found in their thousands in some elite burials.§REF§(Hamerow 2005: 285) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ§REF§" }, { "id": 386, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " This has not been mentioned in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 387, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Articles are not mentioned in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 388, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Articles have not been mentioned in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 389, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No mention of articles in the sources consulted thus far." }, { "id": 390, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Fur Trade: Significant fur trading activities in Siberia and the Ural regions, where hunting was a major source of livelihood. Trading centers for skins were regular features, with Yakutsk in eastern Siberia being a notable market. An annual fair in Irbit in the Urals was dedicated entirely to bartering in animal skins, such as sables and ermines, hunted by various indigenous groups like the Ostiaks, Tatars, and Soiols.§REF§\r\nReynolds, E. K. “The Economic Resources of the Russian Empire.” Geographical Review 1, no. 4 (1916): 249–265. Accessed December 19, 2023. https://www.jstor.org/stable/207297.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TGHSB93W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TGHSB93W</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 391, "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Fur Trade: Significant fur trading activities in Siberia and the Ural regions, where hunting was a major source of livelihood. Trading centers for skins were regular features, with Yakutsk in eastern Siberia being a notable market. An annual fair in Irbit in the Urals was dedicated entirely to bartering in animal skins, such as sables and ermines, hunted by various indigenous groups like the Ostiaks, Tatars, and Soiols.§REF§\r\nReynolds, E. K. “The Economic Resources of the Russian Empire.” Geographical Review 1, no. 4 (1916): 249–265. Accessed December 19, 2023. https://www.jstor.org/stable/207297.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TGHSB93W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TGHSB93W</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 393, "polity": { "id": 539, "name": "ye_qatabanian_commonwealth", "long_name": "Qatabanian Commonwealth", "start_year": -450, "end_year": -111 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The following broadly refers to pre-Islamic Arabia. \"The majority of the inhabitants of Arabia would not have been involved in the incense or international transit trade, but all would have participated to some degree in the local trade, that is, in the exchange of commodities of Arabian origin and destined for consumption in Arabia itself or on its fringes. Pastoralists bartered their surplus of animals and animal products (milk, clarified butter, wool, hides, skins, etc.) for the goods of agricultural communities (grain, oil, clothing, wine, arms, etc.).\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 110) Hoyland, R. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hoylan/titleCreatorYear/items/AUHRSTGG/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 394, "polity": { "id": 548, "name": "it_italy_k", "long_name": "Italian Kingdom Late Antiquity", "start_year": 476, "end_year": 489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from continuity between immediate predecessor (late Roman Empire) and successor (Ostrogothic Kingdom). \"The laws of Theoderic’s Italy preserved the basic principles of Roman criminal law and penal policy. [...] Financial penalties varied widely, from confiscations and fines (to the benefit of the fisc) to compensation in money or kind, and established according to a fixed amount (usually fourfold the amount originally taken).\"§REF§(Lafferty 2016: 158) Lafferty, S. The Law. In Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa (eds) A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VQ8MC72F/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 395, "polity": { "id": 547, "name": "cn_wei_k", "long_name": "Wei Kingdom", "start_year": 220, "end_year": 265 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Even after the advent of coin money, commodity currency consisting mainly of gems and jewels and gold and silver would not be worth special mention, for gold ores, for example, would well be considered to be commodity currency. But, special mention may be warranted of the fact that even cereals and cloths were classed as commodity currency, and, as such, this should be listed as one of the outstanding features of Chinese money. […] In the era of Emperor Wen of Wei dynasty during the turbulent period of Three Kingdoms, it was decreed that the ‘masses should cease to handle money and instead barter in cereals and cloth’.”§REF§(Hozumi 1954: 21) Hozumi, F. 1954. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HISTORY OF CHINESE MONEY. Kyoto University Economic Review 24(2): 18-38. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BGDN5V7V/library§REF§" }, { "id": 396, "polity": { "id": 546, "name": "cn_five_dyn", "long_name": "Five Dynasties Period", "start_year": 906, "end_year": 970 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Even after the advent of coin money, commodity currency consisting mainly of gems and jewels and gold and silver would not be worth special mention, for gold ores, for example, would well be considered to be commodity currency. But, special mention may be warranted of the fact that even cereals and cloths were classed as commodity currency, and, as such, this should be listed as one of the outstanding features of Chinese money. […] In the era of Emperor Wen of Wei dynasty during the turbulent period of Three Kingdoms, it was decreed that the ‘masses should cease to handle money and instead barter in cereals and cloth’.”§REF§(Hozumi 1954: 21) Hozumi, F. 1954. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HISTORY OF CHINESE MONEY. Kyoto University Economic Review 24(2): 18-38. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BGDN5V7V/library§REF§" }, { "id": 397, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 398, "polity": { "id": 711, "name": "om_busaidi_imamate_1", "long_name": "Imamate of Oman and Muscat", "start_year": 1749, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"Owing to the lack of small denomination coins, in the coastal markets broken sums were generally paid in mtama (sorghum), of which, according to Burton, exceedingly variable measures constituted the thaler (Burton 1872, Vol. 2: 405). The missionary Ludwig Krapf (1844) reports that in the island of Zanzibar smaller coins were exchanged or bought with corn, of which 40 measures (one measure corresponding to 5–7 pounds) were generally exchanged for one thaler.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C62TFXBJ\">[Pallaver_Wynne-Jones_LaViolette 2017]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 399, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "\"Tenants paid their landlords in kind or in a combination of kind and money. Often this involved handing over a set proportion of the harvest or perhaps just a fixed amount.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 400, "polity": { "id": 337, "name": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty", "start_year": 1480, "end_year": 1613 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 401, "polity": { "id": 710, "name": "tz_tana", "long_name": "Classic Tana", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1498 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": "\"It was, however, from the beginning of the nineteenth century that commodities such as cloth, beads and cowrie shells crystallised into a monetary form, and became part of a monetary system characterised by the adoption of standard units of currency (Pallaver forthcoming).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C62TFXBJ\">[Pallaver_Wynne-Jones_LaViolette 2017]</a>", "description": null } ] }