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{ "count": 465, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/articles/?format=api&page=8", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/articles/?format=api&page=6", "results": [ { "id": 301, "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "uz_koktepe_1", "long_name": "Koktepe I", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 302, "polity": { "id": 466, "name": "uz_koktepe_2", "long_name": "Koktepe II", "start_year": -750, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 303, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 304, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The alliance with the Türk states was unstable, with the Turkic nobles frequently looting or seizing Sogdian territories; as early as the end of the seventh century the principality of Panjikent had a Türk ruler, Chikin Chur Bilge.\" §REF§(Marshak 1996, 243)§REF§ Considering the Turks had an article-based economy we can infer that this system of exchange was also recognised in regions under their control." }, { "id": 305, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 306, "polity": { "id": 353, "name": "ye_himyar_1", "long_name": "Himyar I", "start_year": 270, "end_year": 340 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 307, "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "ye_himyar_2", "long_name": "Himyar II", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 308, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 309, "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "ye_rasulid_dyn", "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Aden was an exceptionally busy international port where all sorts of exchanges likely took place." }, { "id": 310, "polity": { "id": 372, "name": "ye_tahirid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " This is based on the codes for the Rasulids as 'Sultan 'Amir also appears to have been emulating the high period of Rasulid power a hundred years earlier'§REF§Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 4 Available at Durham E-Theses Online: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/</a>§REF§. Aden was an exceptionally busy international port where all sorts of exchanges likely too place." }, { "id": 311, "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "ye_warlords", "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Zaidi Imamate: took revenue in kind or in money.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 88) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§" }, { "id": 312, "polity": { "id": 607, "name": "si_early_modern_interior", "long_name": "Early Modern Sierra Leone", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Indigenous currency systems emerged as well among groups such as the Kissi and Mende, in the form of locally made cloth, for example.\"§REF§(Fyle and Foray 2006: xxxii) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM.§REF§" }, { "id": 313, "polity": { "id": 608, "name": "gm_kaabu_emp", "long_name": "Kaabu", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Kola nuts, blue cloths, iron, wire, red coral, salt, glassware, wine, aguardiente. \"[T]wo documents can in fact shed a great deal of light on the history of Kaabu. Both date from towards the end of the 17th century[...]. The first document is a list of the trade of the Portuguese and the important ports of the region between the Casamance river and Sierra Leone. [...] The author, Governor Rodrigo de Oliveira da Fonseca, states: 'In the Geba river it is possible to navigate almost forty leagues upstream in small boats; halfway up is the settlement of whites which has three hundred Christians including men, women and children; in all this inland interior there are a great number of blacks of diverse nations, all of them have come across the whites and cultivate cotton and many other crops which they sell to the whites together with many slaves and much ivory and wax and some gold and white cloths which the blacks bring from a long way inland and they exchange it for kola nuts which there is the best currency for exchange [genero]… and other good currencies in this whole region are blue cloths and iron and wire and fine red coral and salt…and aguardente is also well received”. [...] According to Castanho, the main items of exchange were kola nuts, followed by salt, glassware, and then items such as wine and aguardente.§REF§(Green 2009: 103) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V2GTBN8A/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 314, "polity": { "id": 610, "name": "gu_futa_jallon", "long_name": "Futa Jallon", "start_year": 1725, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Salt. \"Situated between the Bambara states and the coast, Futa Jallon both participated in raids and bought slaves for its domestic production while also selling the surplus at the coast to buy European goods and the salt needed for its pastoral economy.\" §REF§(Barry 1999: 293) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/24W2293H/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 315, "polity": { "id": 623, "name": "zi_toutswe", "long_name": "Toutswe", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The use of cattle as primary form of wealth, in addition to symbolic power, in Toutswe society is highly probable. “The transition from a society organized around chiefdoms to one that can be characterized as a state was probably achieved through the accrual of wealth in cattle…. The power of Toutswemogala developed firstly out of the accumulation of wealth in cattle. The ability to control the breeding and distribution of cattle gave the elite of the emergent state access to stores of wealth. These… could be used to barter for more wealth or to secure the allegiance of outer lying groups…. Cattle would have held both symbolic and literal wealth.” §REF§ (Erlank 2005; 701-702) Natasha Erlank, “Iron Age (Later): Southern Africa: Toutswemogala, Cattle, and Political Power,” in Encyclopedia of African History Vol. 2, ed. Kevin Shillington (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005): 701-702. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 316, "polity": { "id": 625, "name": "zi_torwa_rozvi", "long_name": "Torwa-Rozvi", "start_year": 1494, "end_year": 1850 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cattle. Noted to have been present as a major article of the economy well into the Rozvi period, and presumably in the earlier Torwa period as well. This at least implies their presence as a valuable commodity in the community in this period. “Mudenge… argued that cattle, not trade, formed the core of the Rozvi economy.” §REF§ (Schoeman 2017) Maria Schoeman, “Political Complexity North and South of the Zambezi River,” in Oxford Research Encyclopedias Online (2017). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/IXQJ656P/item-details §REF§. “Besides cattle, agricultural produce, salt, iron, ivory, copper, tin and grain were local products that were used in a variety of exchange and consumption contexts…. Grain was also an item of trade but study in the archaeological record is limited by its perishable nature…//… Historians of the… Torwa–Changamire… emphasise that power and ‘wealth’ related to support in followers. In particular it was the number of dependants, followers, and wives that was the real measure of wealth. In some cases, followers could migrate and establish home under a successful ruler without force orcoercion (Kopytoff 1987). The conversion of cattle into political allegiances in the Mutapa and Torwa–Changamire states is comparable to a transfer of wealth-in-things to wealth-inpeople….” §REF§ (Chirikure & Moffett 2018, 24-25) Abigail Moffett & Shadreck Chirikure, “Exotica in Context: Reconfiguring Prestige, Power and Wealth in the Southern African Iron Age,” in Journal of World Prehistory Vol. 29 No. 3 (2016). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z29GV5VQ/item-list §REF§. " }, { "id": 317, "polity": { "id": 630, "name": "sl_polonnaruva", "long_name": "Polonnaruwa", "start_year": 1070, "end_year": 1255 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Grain. “At the base of the structure were the village authorities —possibly village headmen—who were entrusted with the collection of taxes due to the king from each village; these were delivered to the king’s officials during their annual tours. The fact that these taxes were paid partly at least in grain and other agricultural produce —which, being more or less persishable, could not be stored indefinitely by the officials who collected them—may have been a guarantee against extortionate levies on the peasantry.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 69-70) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 318, "polity": { "id": 631, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_3", "long_name": "Anurādhapura III", "start_year": 428, "end_year": 614 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Grain. “Trade, as it touched the mass of the people, was of a humbler kind: the exchange by barter, or by a limited use of currency (kahavaṇu and purāṇas or eldlings), of the surplus grains at their disposal, and of manufactured goods and services. This internal trade in the early Anurādhapura period was well-organised. Among the donors of caves in the early inscriptions are guilds (pugiyana) and members (jete and anujete) of such guilds. There are occasional reference in the Mahāvaṁsa to caravan traffic to and from central highlands in search of spices and articles such as ginger. Such caravans consisted of wagons and pack animals. Apart from these there must have been some limited local trade in cloth and a few luxury articles.” §REF§ (De Silva, 1981, 43-44) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§ “By the end of the fifth century the economic activity of these indigenous traders was so far advanced that there was a system of commerce in grain, in particular seed grain which came to be deposited as capital on which interest was charged. The grant of some of this grain for religious purposes—the performance of the Āryavaṁsa festival—was recorded in inscriptions which show that at the gates of Anurādhapura and some of the other towns was an importance business centre, the niyamatana. These merchants received grain to be deposited as capital (gahe) to be lent—not sold—to cultivators, who had to return the capital with interest (vedha) added. The interest, which was taken periodically by the depositor or the person to whom the donation had been made, was usually specified, and varied with the type of grain. The people who engaged in this activity—namely the merchants, who stored and lent grain—were bankers of a sort, evidence no doubt increasing sophistication in economic activity, but of peripheral significance nonetheless in the economy as a whole.” §REF§ (De Silva, 1981, 44) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§ " }, { "id": 319, "polity": { "id": 632, "name": "nl_dutch_emp_1", "long_name": "Dutch Empire", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1795 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Iron bars used in West Africa. \"In the long term, the slave trade began to dominate trade relations with Africa. Until 1730 the slave trade was officially in the hands of the WIC. [...] To be successful in the slave trade, it was essential to have the right goods for the exchange cargo. Without a good mix of textiles, rifles, gunpowder, iron bars, alcohol, utensils and sometimes cowrie shells – which came from the Maldives in the Indian Ocean – there would have been no hope of becoming an attractive trading partner for the African slave traders.\" §REF§(Emmer and Gommans 2020: 228) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/AI9PPN7Q/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 320, "polity": { "id": 645, "name": "et_hadiya_sultanate", "long_name": "Hadiya Sultanate", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1680 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Iron. “Its inhabitants used iron as a primitive form of currency.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 200) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 321, "polity": { "id": 646, "name": "so_ifat_sultanate", "long_name": "Ifat Sultanate", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1375 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The material culture is generally crude if we compare it to that of other African Islamic sites: the ceramic does not present traces of glaze; few pieces of adornment were found, with the exception of cowries and a few imported pearls; metal objects were collected, including a few bundles of iron rods evoking the hakuna mentioned by al-‘Umari as the currency unit in force in the Ethiopian Islamic ‘Kingdoms.’” §REF§ (Fauvelle et al. 2017, 239-295) Fauvelle, François-Xavier et al. 2007. “The Sultanate of Awfāt, its Capital and the Necropolis of the Walasma”, Annales Islamologiques. Vol. 51. Pp 239-295. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJCMAMX7/library §REF§" }, { "id": 322, "polity": { "id": 659, "name": "ni_allada_k", "long_name": "Allada", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1724 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Textiles, beads, iron bars, etc: “Exports from the Slave Coast amounted to 5,000 captives per year in the 1680s, and peaked at 10,000 per year from the 1690s through the 1710s. Goods received in exchange for captives were predominantly textiles and cowry shells (Cypraea moneta), which originated in the Indian Ocean and were the principle currency in the region. However, other goods such as iron and brass bars, beads, guns and spirits are also mentioned in period texts. Additionally, beads, clay tobacco pipes, ceramic vessels, alcohol bottles and various other trinkets are documented at contemporary archaeological sites. The introduction of European and Asian manufactured goods had a significant impact on communities on the Slave Coast.” §REF§Monroe, J. Cameron. “Urbanism on West Africa’s Slave Coast: Archaeology Sheds New Light on Cities in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade.” American Scientist, vol. 99, no. 5, 2011, pp. 400–09: 403. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/E5WA63Z2/collection§REF§ “Given these distorting factors, it seems better to look at slave prices in terms of their local value on the Slave Coast -that is, their price in cowry shells, the local currency; and in iron bars, which appear also to have served as a standard for the valuation of other goods.125 Prices in cowries and iron bars also present some difficulties of interpretation, since they sometimes moved in opposite directions, and over the seventeenth century iron bars tended to depreciate in relative value against cowries.” §REF§Law, R. (1994). The Slave Trade in Seventeenth-Century Allada: A Revision. African Economic History, 22, 59–92: 80. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/T78WCTGJ/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 323, "polity": { "id": 661, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_2", "long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́", "start_year": 1601, "end_year": 1835 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “It is impossible to estimate what proportion of the Alafin's imperial revenues came from these trade taxes as opposed to the fixed tributes. But even these fixed tributes did not, as Ajayi appears to suppose, represent taxes on agricultural production as opposed to trade. A considerable proportion of the tributes was paid in cash-for example, Dahomey paid 400 bags of cowries (about $4,000) annually. And part was paid in the form of imported European goods for example, the tribute of Dahomey included coral, European cloth, muskets, and gunpowder and that of Porto Novo consisted of 'the richest European commodities', while within the Oyo kingdom Ilase paid gunpowder, flints, and tobacco and Ifonyin 'cloths and other articles of European manufacture'.” §REF§Law, R. (1977). The Oyo Empire c. 1600 – c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press: 231. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB32ZPCF/collection§REF§ “Oyo rule over the towns of the kingdom involved, first, the payment of an annual tribute (in Yoruba, asingba or isin). The oba and bale of the subordinate towns were required to bring their tribute to Oyo in person at the annual Bere festival, at which they followed the chiefs of the capital in paying their homage and tribute to the Alafin. […] The basic element in the tribute paid by the provincial towns was the bere grass used for the thatching of the palace roofs, the giving of which was symbolic of subordination to the recipient. In some cases, the tribute may have consisted solely of this bere grass. This is claimed, for example, at Iwo. But usually the towns paid additional tributes in money (i.e. cowry shells) and kind. The town of Saki is said to have paid two rams and ten bags of cowries (i.e. 200,000 cowries, or about 100 dollars).” §REF§Law, R. (1977). The Oyo Empire c. 1600 – c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press: 98–99. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB32ZPCF/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 324, "polity": { "id": 662, "name": "ni_whydah_k", "long_name": "Whydah", "start_year": 1671, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Iron bars: “Pre-colonial Dahomey (and Allada and Whydah before it) had a money economy, employing a currency of cowrie shells (called locally àkué). Many commercial transactions, most taxes, and to some extent social payments such as bride wealth were monetized. In particular, exchange in local markets was fully monetized, all transactions being normally for cash. This applied not only to local people but also to Europeans who wanted to purchase in the market. The European factories, for example, found that if they ran out of cowries they could not procure provisions by bartering other commodities, but had to sell goods such as iron bars or even slaves to obtain cowries for use in purchasing food.” §REF§Austin, Gareth, et al. “Credit, Currencies, and Culture: African Financial Institutions in Historical Perspective.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 34, no. 1, 2001, p. 144: 21-22. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SPXH2IUW/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 325, "polity": { "id": 666, "name": "ni_sokoto_cal", "long_name": "Sokoto Caliphate", "start_year": 1804, "end_year": 1904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “New supplies were regularly available and reasonably controllable as part of the Caliphate’s slave acquisitions. (When there was reluctance to sell household slaves considered part of the family, such slaves would be far less liable to transfer.) Most households capable of dealing in large sums of money owned slaves, sometimes many, and there were at least a million people in bondange, perhaps as many as two-and-a-half million. So accomodating payments in slaves would not pose special difficulties or require any unusual arrangements.” §REF§Stiansen, Endre, and Jane I. Guyer, editors. Credit, Currencies, and Culture: African Financial Institutions in Historical Perspective. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1999: 68. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/A9F557EW/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 326, "polity": { "id": 667, "name": "ni_igala_k", "long_name": "Igala", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “One important trade item in this regional trade which was peddled over long distances was salt. Some of the salt imported into Igboland from the Delta area was transported further north into Igala country. Another important source of salt for the Igbo and the Igala was the salt-lake at Uburu in the north-eastern part of Igboland, a situation which ensured its prominence as a trade centre in Northern Igboland. The Igala also procured salt from the Jukun Kingdom to the north-east through the river Benue. This valuable salt trade was monopolised by the Ewo clan of the Igala kingdom. Beads constituted important luxury items in the regional trade, and it is significant that some of the beads unearthed at Igbo-Ukwu were of local origin. In more recent times, the Igala country has been a major source of the supply of a variety of beads to the Igbo people, and it is probable that this trade had existed for a long time.” §REF§OGUAGHA, P. A. “THE IMPACT OF EUROPEAN TRADE ON IGBO-IGALA COMMERCIAL RELATIONS IN THE LOWER NIGER C. 1650-1850 A.D.” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, vol. 11, no. 3/4, 1982, 11–27: 12. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/38SQNCRA/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 327, "polity": { "id": 669, "name": "ni_hausa_k", "long_name": "Hausa bakwai", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1808 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The new settlement soon became attractive to both settlers and passing traders, and thus brought more power and wealth to its ruler. Little by little, the surrounding chiefs came to pay him tributes in the form of iron bars, and this was the beginning of haraji or poll-tax in Katsina.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 273. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “Little information is available about the currency used in these commercial activities and it can be surmised that, in the period in question, barter predominated in regional exchanges. The principal currencies were bands of cotton cloth (known as sawaye in Hausa), salt and slaves.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 298. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “Slaves were primarily imported from the regions to the south of Hausaland and were either victims of raids or paid as tribute from neighbouring countries. They fulfilled various roles, being used as currency and goods”. §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 299. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 328, "polity": { "id": 671, "name": "ni_dahomey_k", "long_name": "Foys", "start_year": 1715, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": "‘’’ “The objects displayed in these parades were articles of commerce - cloth, cowries, gold, and silver” §REF§Yoder, J. C. (1974). Fly and Elephant Parties: Political Polarization in Dahomey, 1840-1870. The Journal of African History, 15(3), 417–432: 421. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KNUC3TGF/collection§REF§ “According to the classic ethnographic study of Le Herisse, the skulls of sacrificed human victims, preserved in the compound of the Migan (the senior non-royal chief of Dahomey), constituted 'one of the treasures of the Dahomian king ... equal to the greatest riches'. In this connection Le Herisse cites a Dahomian story relating the alleged diplomatic preliminaries to the Dahomey-Whydah war of 1727, when King Huffon of Whydah sent to Agaja a gift comprising 40 each of cloths, barrels of gunpowder, muskets, bottles of rum, and 40 loads of 4,000 cowry shells, asking if Agaja could afford to make so rich a gift without receiving anything in exchange; Agaja in response treated Huffon's messengers to a display of two lines of skulls of enemies killed in war or sacrificed, declaring that 'his only wealth consisted in enemy spoils, and that he would not be slow to teach their master so'.” §REF§Law, R. (1989). ‘My Head Belongs to the King’: On the Political and Ritual Significance of Decapitation in Pre-Colonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 30(3), 399–415: 404. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5335RH4I/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 329, "polity": { "id": 674, "name": "se_cayor_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor", "start_year": 1549, "end_year": 1864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§ “The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from Western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century, and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa, include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Bisson 2000, 114) Bisson, Michael S. et al. 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DKFA9J3I/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 330, "polity": { "id": 675, "name": "se_saloum_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum", "start_year": 1490, "end_year": 1863 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§ “The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from Western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century, and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa, include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Bisson 2000, 114) Bisson, Michael S. et al. 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DKFA9J3I/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 331, "polity": { "id": 676, "name": "se_baol_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Baol", "start_year": 1550, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§ “The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from Western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century, and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa, include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Bisson 2000, 114) Bisson, Michael S. et al. 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DKFA9J3I/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 332, "polity": { "id": 677, "name": "se_sine_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sine", "start_year": 1350, "end_year": 1887 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§ “The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from Western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century, and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa, include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Bisson 2000, 114) Bisson, Michael S. et al. 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DKFA9J3I/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 333, "polity": { "id": 678, "name": "se_waalo_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo", "start_year": 1287, "end_year": 1855 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§ “The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from Western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century, and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa, include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Bisson 2000, 114) Bisson, Michael S. et al. 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DKFA9J3I/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 334, "polity": { "id": 679, "name": "se_jolof_emp", "long_name": "Jolof Empire", "start_year": 1360, "end_year": 1549 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§ “The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from Western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century, and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa, include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Bisson 2000, 114) Bisson, Michael S. et al. 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DKFA9J3I/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 335, "polity": { "id": 680, "name": "se_futa_toro_imamate", "long_name": "Imamate of Futa Toro", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1860 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§" }, { "id": 336, "polity": { "id": 681, "name": "se_great_fulo_emp", "long_name": "Denyanke Kingdom", "start_year": 1490, "end_year": 1776 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§" }, { "id": 337, "polity": { "id": 682, "name": "se_jolof_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Jolof", "start_year": 1549, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The anklet, bangle, or torque money of the West African equatorial coast, the manilla applied iron, brass, or copper to a common form of personal adornment that doubled as currency facilitating the slave trade. From prehistoric times, natives of Zaire north to Senegal collected portable wealth in heavy anklets, bracelets, and collars that served as highly visible savings accounts rather than everyday shopping cash.” §REF§ (Snodgrass 2019, 198) Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Jefferson: McFarland Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5SC74DA/library §REF§ “The origin of manillas is not well documented. Historical accounts from Western Sudan mention rings as a medium of exchange as early as the eleventh century, and some archaeological discoveries from tropical West Africa, include a few copper rings dating between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Bisson 2000, 114) Bisson, Michael S. et al. 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DKFA9J3I/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 338, "polity": { "id": 685, "name": "ug_buganda_k_1", "long_name": "Buganda I", "start_year": 1408, "end_year": 1716 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " It seems that cloth became currency in the decades or perhaps years immediately preceding colonialism. \"Cloth became increasingly accessible, and the old restrictions increasingly inoperative, particularly after the upheavals of the late 1880s. To some extent it represented a new currency. [...] As we have noted, pre-colonial Buganda never developed a purely monetary economy, and even during the later nineteenth century barter was an important method of exchange, existing alongside a cowry currency. Nevertheless, the information we have on nineteenth-century prices suggests that virtually everything had at least a nominal cowry value. Moreover, other currencies existed alongside cowries, and some undoubtedly pre-dated the latter. Roscoe mentions a \"small ivory disc\" which he terms 'sanga', ssanga being the Luganda term for either a tusk or ivory in general. This, Roscoe claimed, was one of the earliest forms of money in Buganda; although clearly indigenous and probably much older than the cowry shell, it also had a cowry value. One disc was apparently worth one hundred shells. Ivory played a dual role insofar as it was on the one hand a commodity valued for its own sake, and on the other a standard medium of exchange. The former role gradually took precedence over the latter, as demand for ivory from the coast increased, so that as the nineteenth century progressed, ivory as money all but disappeared. [...] A third pre-cowry currency has already been mentioned, namely the blue bead, and as we have also already noted, examples of beads have been excavated at Ntusi. From such archaeological evidence, it is possible to suggest that beads may be the oldest currency in the region.\"§REF§(Reid 2010: 122, 126-127) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H64W34U/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 339, "polity": { "id": 696, "name": "tz_buhayo_k", "long_name": "Buhaya", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"No single currency was in general use. Buhaya used cowrie shells, Ujiji employed special beads, and Pare utilised maize cobs, but none had a fixed value elsewhere.\"§REF§(Iliffe 1979: 68) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB2AJMVC/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 340, "polity": { "id": 609, "name": "si_freetown_1", "long_name": "Freetown", "start_year": 1787, "end_year": 1808 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Indigenous currency systems emerged as well among groups such as the Kissi and Mende, in the form of locally made cloth, for example.\"§REF§(Fyle and Foray 2006: xxxii) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM.§REF§" }, { "id": 341, "polity": { "id": 619, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I", "start_year": 701, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cattle, perhaps. \"The combination of spatial clustering, social differentiation in mortuary practices from birth, economic control over iron production, and possible wealth in cattle suggest the emergence of political centralization and elites at Mound 4 by the start of second millennium A.D. (Red II), and perhaps much earlier.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 29)§REF§" }, { "id": 342, "polity": { "id": 624, "name": "zi_great_zimbabwe", "long_name": "Great Zimbabwe", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cattle. While their use as a form of money per-se in Great Zimbabwe is not known, a substantial amount of cattle remains have been recovered from the site, and given the likely importance of cattle as a form of wealth, in line with other societies within the local area as noted by Chirikure, it seems likely that cattle remained an important form of intrinsic wealth within the Great Zimbabwean society, as Pikirayi suggests. “The walled and unwalled areas… yielded a significant amount of faunal remains… both domestic and wild animals…. cattle… feature in abundance…. The abundance of cattle bones shows that their raising was an important productive pursuit… // …The manner in which exotics were used, and what they symbolised, was neither static nor fixed making their use time- and space-bound. The whole point of sourcing things – from near and far – was to navigate daily life and its demands across all sectors of society. This is why glass beads, cowries, and cloth could also be used as gifts in marriage transactions, in ritual, and divination to affirm and express ideas of personhood, community-hood, and so on. As such, it does not mean that if exotics were used… that they were more important than cattle or hoes, which were pivoted on production and subsistence. Always, during marriage negotiations – cattle (mombe) and hoes (mapadza) had no substitutes.” §REF§ (Chirikure 2021, 185-215) Shadreck Chirikure, Great Zimbabwe: Reclaiming a ‘Confiscated’ Past (Routledge, 2021). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MWWKAGSJ/collection §REF§ “[Great Zimbabwe]’s rulers accumulated considerable wealth and power from the large cattle herds they managed and from gold and ivory traded with the east African coast…. Great Zimbabwe, like Mapungubwe, derived some of its wealth from taxing traders and rewarding gold miners with cattle… // …the expansion of the Zimbabwe Culture settlements westwards towards the salt deposits in the Makgadikgadi Pans underlines the importance of this commodity, perhaps for domestic consumption in an economy dominated by cattle.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2006; 31-40) Innocent Pikirayi, “The Demise of Great Zimbabwe, AD 1420-1550: An Environmental Re-Appraisal,” in Cities in the World, 1500-2000 (Routledge, 2006): 31-47. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MWWKAGSJ/collection §REF§ “Possession of local resources such as land and cattle… was a source of prestige in the historical Luba state of central Africa (Vansina 1999), the Mutapa state (AD 1450-1900) in northern Zimbabwe (Mudenge 1988), and 19th-century Buganda in Uganda (Kodesh 2010), where their liquidation created social obligations (wealth-in-people) that sometimes made them more valuable than exotics (Mudenge 1988)… // …Raising cattle was universally recognized as a vital subsistence and economic practice [in Central and West Africa] that provided a source of food, wealth, and social power…. Individual households, kings, and chiefs all owned cattle, whose numbers gave them various levels of social status…. An evaluation of the social and economic role of cattle shows that they were storable and reproducible wealth used to gain social, economic, and political clients, or to acquire wives through the payment of bride wealth (Beach 1974; Iliffe 1995; Kuper 1982; Tsodzo 1976). Cattle ownership, however, was not restricted to class: households at various levels of sociopolitical organization from the capital to villages could own them, quantities of which denoted wealth and status in society (Tsodzo 1976).” §REF§ (Chirikure 2020, 150-164) Shadreck Chirikure, “New Perspectives on the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe,” in Journal of Archaeological Research Vol. 28 (2020): 139-186. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/BSPEQDIG/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 343, "polity": { "id": 626, "name": "zi_mutapa", "long_name": "Mutapa", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1880 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Given the importance of cattle in regional traditions as a form of wealth, and their presence in the archaeological record of Mutapa, it seems a reasonable inference to include them as a form of monetary article. Pwiti agrees with this assessment, suggesting that cattle may have been of great importance in the state. “The economy in the Mutapa region appears to have been… similar to that of Great Zimbabwe, with cattle, agriculture, gold and trade continuing being key components.” §REF§ (Schoeman 2017) Maria Schoeman, “Political Complexity North and South of the Zambezi River,” in Oxford Research Encyclopedias Online (2017). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4UBRHU5H/item-details §REF§ “… if the founders of the Mutapa state were expanding from Great Zimbabwe, they were familiar with the potential of two of the state’s several branches of production and how they could be used as sources of power. These are external trade and large-scale cattle herding. If they had possessed large herds of cattle during their expansion, or alternatively had built up herds in the north, then it may have been possible for them to use these as a useful power base among the locals…. Indeed for the Mutapa state, the Portuguese refer to their importance in this regard….cattle rich immigrant communities settled among a people who were not so rich, but who were very keen to use cattle products or own more cattle herds.” §REF§ (Pwiti 1996, 46) Gilbert Pwiti, “Peasants, Chiefs and Kings: A Model of the Development of Cultural Complexity in Northern Zimbabwe,” in Zambezia Vol. 23, No. 1 (1996): 31-52. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/I4AA8N73/item-details §REF§" }, { "id": 344, "polity": { "id": 636, "name": "et_jimma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma", "start_year": 1790, "end_year": 1932 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests that bartering with articles was a common practice within Ethiopia. “Articles of clothing, food, agricultural implements, decorative ornaments, cotton cloth, small iron bars, cartridges, and bars of salt or amole, as it was called, replaced coins for many years.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 109) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 345, "polity": { "id": 641, "name": "et_gomma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Gomma", "start_year": 1780, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests that bartering with articles was a common practice within Ethiopia. “Articles of clothing, food, agricultural implements, decorative ornaments, cotton cloth, small iron bars, cartridges, and bars of salt or amole, as it was called, replaced coins for many years.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 109) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 346, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests that bartering with articles was a common practice within Ethiopia. “Articles of clothing, food, agricultural implements, decorative ornaments, cotton cloth, small iron bars, cartridges, and bars of salt or amole, as it was called, replaced coins for many years.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 109) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 347, "polity": { "id": 651, "name": "et_gumma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Gumma", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests that bartering with articles was a common practice within Ethiopia. “Articles of clothing, food, agricultural implements, decorative ornaments, cotton cloth, small iron bars, cartridges, and bars of salt or amole, as it was called, replaced coins for many years.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 109) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 348, "polity": { "id": 652, "name": "et_harar_emirate", "long_name": "Emirate of Harar", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1875 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “Articles of clothing, food, agricultural implements, decorative ornaments, cotton cloth, small iron bars, cartridges, and bars of salt or amole, as it was called, replaced coins for many years.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 109) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 349, "polity": { "id": 653, "name": "et_aussa_sultanate", "long_name": "Early Sultanate of Aussa", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests that bartering with articles was a common practice within Ethiopia. “Articles of clothing, food, agricultural implements, decorative ornaments, cotton cloth, small iron bars, cartridges, and bars of salt or amole, as it was called, replaced coins for many years.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 109) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 350, "polity": { "id": 684, "name": "ug_toro_k", "long_name": "Toro", "start_year": 1830, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Article", "article": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The following quote, which refers to the late 19th century across the Great Lakes region in general, suggests that, before the late introduction of cowrie shells, salt bundles, goats and hoes functioned as currency: \"The fundamentals of this long-distance commerce were ivory, slaves, and, in exchange, firearms (piston rifles). The ancient networks were grafted onto this new axis, which itself created growing demand for local products, notably foodstuffs. New monetary tools also came into use: rows of cowries and beads replaced the hoe, the goat, and the salt bundle.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 196) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" } ] }