Widespread Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Widespread Religions.
GET /api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 1205, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In 1697, the number of Jews in France had significantly diminished as a result of forced conversions, sweeping expulsions, and the Black Death of the fourteenth century. Nevertheless, there remained four autonomous Jewish communities concentrated in distinct areas of France: Alsace-Lorraine, the largest with approximately 30,000 members; Bordeaux and Bayonne; Avignon and Comtat Venaissin; and Paris, the smallest with five hundred members.” §REF§ (Perlmutter, 2012, 42) Perlmutter, Jennifer 2012. ‘Knowledge, Authority, and the Bewitching Jew in Early Modern France.’ Jewish Social Studies, 19(1), 34-52. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TR3HHJW2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TR3HHJW2 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“But in the Carolingian world Christianity was virtually the only game in town. Paganism was diminishing rapidly even if, to the fascination of historians of religion, its vestiges persist to this moment. There were small, invisible and inarticulate Muslim communities in the Pyrenees region and small Jewish communities in such cities as Lyons and Bordeaux.”§REF§ Noble, T.F.X, 2015. Pg 288/289. Carolingian Religion Church History Vol.84 no.2, June 2015, pp. 287 - 307. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Society of Church History §REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 263, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Again there is no basis to assert that this was the “[fourth] most widespread religion.” In fact, Daryaee suggests a muting of Greek and Mesopotamian influence as the Sasanian hierarchy enhanced the role of Zoroastrianism in the operations of the empire.\" (Lee Patterson, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, December 2023)", "description": "“Nothing can really be said of the existing non-Iranian deities and temples which were certainly in existence, due to Greek and Mesopotamian influence. These types of worship now either had to be abandoned or incorporated under the religion of Ohrmazd.” §REF§ (Daryaee 2014, 72) Touraj Daryaee 2014. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London, England: I.B. Tauris. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ETDRZZE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ETDRZZE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“One reason for the Umayyad government’s relatively easy policy toward Christians (and other non-Muslims) may have been the simple fact that, in the seventh century and well into the eighth, the Arabian Believers or Muslims were a decided minority, indeed for long a small minority, in the lands they ruled, which was populated in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt overwhelmingly by Christians, and in Iran, by Zoroastrians. It was only in the tenth century, probably that Muslims became the majority of the population, via a gradual process of conversion.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 33) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§“One widely cited but approximate estimate has it that in the older urban centres of northeast Iran in 750, at the very end of the Umayyad era, perhaps fewer than ten per cent of the population would have identified as Muslim.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 2) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Introduction’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§“At the outset of the Umayyad period it is clear that very few of the conquered peoples had accepted Islam, however we understand this last phrase (islam literally means ‘submission’). But by the end of the period, in spite of the initial attempt by the Arabs to keep themselves apart religiously and socially from their subjects, and in spite of the refusal by caliphs and governors to allow the non-Arabs to enjoy the advantages of acceptance of Islam, large numbers of the subject peoples had come to identify themselves as Muslims.”§REF§ (Hawting 1986, 8) Hawting, G.R. 2000. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N77JAM6S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N77JAM6S </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“When the Abbasids came to power, Jewish intellectual life in Iraq was centered in the rabbinic academies of Sura and Pumbedita, small towns on the middle Euphrates, where the heads of academies-the geonim-cultivated the oral transmission and study of the Babylonian Talmud. By the early tenth century, the academies had moved to Baghdad and become ‘cosmopolitan and outward-looking institution’ whose members engaged in the wider political and intellectual trends of the caliphate.” §REF§ (Weitz 2018, 92) Weitz, Lev E. 2018. Between Christ and Caliph: Law, Marriage, and Christian Community in Early Islam. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BDIX49EF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BDIX49EF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 269, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Samaritan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Although Samaritan religious practices may not be the fourth most widespread religion, it was present as a significant cultural force in the polity. “From these sources, it is clear that during these periods the Samaritans were a major ethnic/religious group living in the Land of Israel, alongside Jews, pagans and eventually Christians, practicing a religion that was in many ways very similar to the Judaism of the time, but also very different. The various Jewish sources indicate that they considered the Samaritans to be foreigners and enemies on one hand, but respected their piety on the other.” §REF§ (Levin 2013, 217-218) Levin, Yigal. ‘Bi-Directional Forced Deportations in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Origins of the Samaritans: Colonialism and Hybridity.’ Archaeological Review from Cambridge. Vol 28 (1): 217-240. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RG2ZCSUG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RG2ZCSUG </b></a> §REF§." }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“While non-Muslim communities faced distinctive and diverse challenges under Qajar rule, there were also shared experiences. First the main minority communities (Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian and Baha’i) viewed themselves as being part of wider religious groups, and, to a greater or lesser extent, utilised international contacts to put forward community grievances, and develop their community infrastructure.” §REF§ (Gleave 2005, 11). Gleave, Robert. 2005 ‘Religion and Society in Qajar Iran: An Introduction.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EGMITHFH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EGMITHFH </b></a> §REF§ “Non-Muslims were easy targets and the Jews were the smallest and most defenceless of the religious minorities in Iran. The Armenians and other Christians fared comparatively well, since representatives of European countries strongly protected their Christian brethren. Though the Zoroastrians had also been severely persecuted in the past, at this time because of their concentration in areas of British influence and because of the influence of the Parsees under the British Raj, they enjoyed some protection as well.” §REF§ (Sahim 2005, 294) Sahmi, Haideh. 2005 ‘Jews of Iran in the Qajar Period: Persecution and Perseverance.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MJGC2IH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MJGC2IH2 </b></a> §REF§<br>“Non-Muslims were easy targets and the Jews were the smallest and most defenceless of the religious minorities in Iran. The Armenians and other Christians fared comparatively well, since representatives of European countries strongly protected their Christian brethren. Though the Zoroastrians had also been severely persecuted in the past, at this time because of their concentration in areas of British influence and because of the influence of the Parsees under the British Raj, they enjoyed some protection as well.” […] “In the early part of the century it [Hamadan] had the largest Jewish community in Iran, and by the end of the nineteenth century this population was second only to that of Tehran.” §REF§ (Sahim 2005, 294) Sahmi, Haideh. 2005 ‘Jews of Iran in the Qajar Period: Persecution and Perseverance.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MJGC2IH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MJGC2IH2 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 703, "name": "in_kalabhra_dyn", "long_name": "Kalabhra Dynasty", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Jainism declined steeply in Tamil country from about the end of the 6th century A.D. when there was a tremendous upsurge of Saiva and Vaisnava sects revitalized by the Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars and Alvars.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§ “According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism). This may have led to persecution of the peasant and urban elites of the Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power.” §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UGD5HUFP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UGD5HUFP </b></a> §REF§ “This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported Buddhism and Jainism during their rule.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N3D88RXF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N3D88RXF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The first European power that presented itself actively in this region of India was the Portuguese. It appeared in the double character of a commercial power, in possession of salient positions along the coast and some stripes of territory, and of an organized political power behind the efforts of missionaries, particularly Jesuits in the earlier stages of their work among the fisher-folk of the coast country of the Pandyas. The earliest organized missionary effort was made in the territory of the Nayaks of Madura and their capital, Madura, itself constituted an important missionary centre, though it shared this honour very early with Trichinopoly.” §REF§ (Aiyar 1991, 2) Aiyar, R. Sathyanatha. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJRWI8DR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJRWI8DR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Our author discusses, in the next chapter, the career of S’evappa (A.D. 1532-1580) from his youth and also his ancestry. He [...] details [...] his wide tolerance and patronage of all religions, including even Buddhism and Islam, and his encouragement of the Portuguese at Negapatam, testified to in an anonymous life of St. Francis Xavier; and at the end discusses the duration of his active rule.” §REF§ (Vriddhasirisan 1995, II) Vriddhasirisan. V. 1995. The Nayaks of Tanjore. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZHNVFHW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FZHNVFHW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Jainism declined steeply in Tamil country from about the end of the 6th century A.D. when there was a tremendous upsurge of Saiva and Vaisnava sects revitalized by the Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars and Alvars.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 39, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Lutheran Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Until 1753 the Raja of Thanjavur prohibited European missionaries from propagating Christianity in his territory. After that date Christian Freidrich Schwartz (1726-98) established mission stations on this territory in Thanjavur, as well as on the territory of the Nawab of Carnatic in Tiruchchiruppalli.” §REF§ (Liebau 2008, 72) Liebau, Heike. 2008. ‘Country Priests, Catechists, and School Masters as Cultural, Religious, and Social Middlemen in the Context of the Tranquebar Mission.’ In Christian and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication Since 1500. Edited by Robert Eric Frykenburg. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/INP4GJPJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: INP4GJPJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB The Early Pandyas reigned during the Sangam period mentioned in the following quote. “During the Sangam Age, Buddhism and Jainism also flourished together, but were subordinate to the Brahmanical Vedic religion. The Tamils of the Sangam Age were aware of certain spiritual and philosophical truths, such as concepts of body and soul superiority of destiny, dying for a noble cause and so on.” §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 361) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PNX9XBJQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PNX9XBJQ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 273, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mithraism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The rise of Manichaeism has often been seen as part of a phenomenon in the late second and third century that has been discussed almost as much as Christianity: the rise of so-called oriental religions. Alongside the rise of Manichaeism, the late second and third centuries also saw an increase in the popularity of Mithraism, which like Manichaeism was linked to the Persians. Though much debated, it seems clear that this link was not a direct one. Roman Mithraism was not the final result of a continuous adaptation of its eastern counterpart, but a reinvention (possibly in the first century ad) of this eastern religion in Roman terms (Beck 1998: 122–5). All the same, such a reinvention needs to be explained, as does the simultaneous increase in the popularity of the (eastern) mystery cults of Isis and Magna Mater (the Great Mother). These were cults into which one needed to be initiated, cults that were a form of personal religion (Burkert 1987: 12–29).” §REF§ (Hekster and Zair 2008, 79) Hekster, Olivier, and Nicholas Zair. 2008. Rome and its Empire, AD 193-284. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JK9U4QUR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JK9U4QUR </b></a> §REF§." }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 143, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Samaritanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It must be said that the language used in these letters is not always particularly friendly, although it is more positive than the one reference to the religion of the Samaritans, ‘Samarea superstitio’; even the Samaritans, however, were allowed to state their case in a dispute with the Roman church over property.” §REF§ (Moorhead 1992, 98) Moorhead, John. 1992. Theodoric in Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X8RGRNS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X8RGRNS8 </b></a>§REF§ NB not mentioned in the following quote. “Ostrogothic Italy was comprised of different religious communities, the most prominent of which were Catholic Christians, Jews, and the Ostrogoths themselves who have typically been labelled as ‘Arians’.” §REF§(Cohen 2016, 503) Cohen, Samuel. 2016. ‘Religious Diversity’. In The Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. Edited by Jonathan J. Arnold. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPK4466C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SPK4466C </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“between the mass deportation of Iberian Muslim communities, between 1609 and 1613, and the late nineteenth century, no free community of Muslims, including those converted to Christianity, resided within Western Europe. […] Like the new Christian captives who were paraded upon arrival to the docks of North African ports, the enslavement of Muslims and their public display filled more than practical needs. They became exotic specimens and “goods,” trophies in a cosmological conflict. As captives enslaved through an ongoing crusade, the infidels who were brought in fetters to Europe personified the triumph of the true religion over the false and Christianity over the “superstition” of Islam.” §REF§ Salzmann, 396) Salzmann, Ariel. 2013. ‘Migrants in Chains: On the Enslavement of Muslims in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe’. In Religions. Vol 4. Pp. 392 – 411. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I89VA8PS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I89VA8PS </b></a>§REF§ “Despite the disparaging idioms in European languages that bear witness to the centuries of Muslim servitude in early modern Europe, there remains no public acknowledgment of their lives, deaths and communal histories.” §REF§ Salzmann, 406) Salzmann, Ariel. 2013. ‘Migrants in Chains: On the Enslavement of Muslims in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe’. In Religions. Vol 4. Pp. 392 – 411. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I89VA8PS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I89VA8PS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Despite the disparaging idioms in European languages that bear witness to the centuries of Muslim servitude in early modern Europe, there remains no public acknowledgment of their lives, deaths and communal histories.” §REF§ Salzmann, 406) Salzmann, Ariel. 2013. ‘Migrants in Chains: On the Enslavement of Muslims in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe’. In Religions. Vol 4. Pp. 392 – 411. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I89VA8PS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I89VA8PS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 143, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Samaritanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The emperor speaks of all three (or four, if count Samaritans) of the dissident or divergent types of religious groupings with which the Christians felt themselves to be confronted.” §REF§ (Millar 2006, 120). Millar, Fergus. 2006. The Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II, 408-450. Berkeley: University of California. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RUGHNGSM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RUGHNGSM </b></a>§REF§“At all levels, doctrinal, communal, and (in a sense) political, Judaism and Samaritanism, both of which were officially tolerated, posed what was felt to be a more serious threat.” §REF§ (Millar 2006, 123). Millar, Fergus. 2006. The Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II, 408-450. Berkeley: University of California. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RUGHNGSM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RUGHNGSM </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 47, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Protestant Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "There were so few (open) Protestants by the end of the Inquisition, they ceased to threaten the Church. “The lack of Protestant threat made the Church complacent.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 323) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It has been stated recently that the Ismāʿīlī Shiite Fatimid elite ruled over a population whose Muslim minority was preponderantly Sunnī but whose overwhelming majority consisted of Christians of various denominations, with significant Jewish communities spread all over the territory.” §REF§ (den Heijer, Lev, and Swanson 2015, 334) den Heijer, Johannes, Lev, Yaacov, and Swanson, Mark. 2015. The Fatimid Empire and its Population. Medieval Encounters. Vol. 21. Pp. 323-344. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HDSM663W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HDSM663W </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 143, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Samaritanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "As of 1301, “dhimmis were so-to-speak color coded by their outer garments”; yellow became the identifying color for Jews, blue for Christians, and red for Samaritans. Sometime during the first century and a half of Mamluk rule, a humiliating oath for Jews appearing before a Muslim court was reintroduced after a moratorium on such oaths which had lasted more than five hundred years. The tone and intent of this degrading, ludicrously worded adjuration is reminiscent of the notorious oath More Judaico in Christian Europe.” §REF§ (Stillman 1998, 207) Stillman, Norman. 1998. ‘The non-Muslim Communities: the Jewish Community’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J7AB3ZRW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J7AB3ZRW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 143, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Samaritanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "As of 1301, “dhimmis were so-to-speak color coded by their outer garments”; yellow became the identifying color for Jews, blue for Christians, and red for Samaritans. Sometime during the first century and a half of Mamluk rule, a humiliating oath for Jews appearing before a Muslim court was reintroduced after a moratorium on such oaths which had lasted more than five hundred years. The tone and intent of this degrading, ludicrously worded adjuration is reminiscent of the notorious oath More Judaico in Christian Europe.” §REF§ (Stillman 1998, 207) Stillman, Norman. 1998. ‘The non-Muslim Communities: the Jewish Community’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J7AB3ZRW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J7AB3ZRW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Pouzet notes the presence of religious minorities in the area including various Shi‘i groups, Christians, and Jews, and he then turns to issues of religion and political power. For both the Ayyubids and Mamluks, unity and the defense of Islam against the Mongols in the East and Christians in the west was paramount. Invasions and threats of invasion were eminent features of politics, religion, and life in general, and these hostilities sometimes made life hard for Christians and Jews living as protected people among the Muslims of Damascus”. §REF§ Homerin 2005:6. Homerin, Th. Emil. 2005.“The Study of Islam within Mamluk Domains.” Mamluk Studies Review IX (2):1-30. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZRJ67JBK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZRJ67JBK </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 143, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Samaritanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "As of 1301, “dhimmis were so-to-speak color coded by their outer garments”; yellow became the identifying color for Jews, blue for Christians, and red for Samaritans.” §REF§ (Stillman 1998, 207) Stillman, Norman. 1998. ‘The non-Muslim Communities: the Jewish Community’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J7AB3ZRW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J7AB3ZRW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt was a Sunni country, and hostilities against the Shi’I community occurred during the Ikhshidid period.” §REF§ (Lev 1997, 126) Lev, Yaacov. ‘Regime, Army, and Society in Medieval Egypt, 9th-12th Centuries’. In War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean 7th to 15th Centuries. Edited by Michael Whitby. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MFR3XX79\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MFR3XX79 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 358, "name": "sa_rashidun_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Hijaz", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 661 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB The Umayyads were the immediate successors to the Rashidun Caliphate. “One reason for the Umayyad government’s relatively easy policy toward Christians (and other non-Muslims) may have been the simple fact that, in the seventh century and well into the eighth, the Arabian Believers or Muslims were a decided minority, indeed for long a small minority, in the lands they ruled, which was populated in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt overwhelmingly by Christians, and in Iran, by Zoroastrians. It was only in the tenth century, probably that Muslims became the majority of the population, via a gradual process of conversion.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 33) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§“One widely cited but approximate estimate has it that in the older urban centres of northeast Iran in 750, at the very end of the Umayyad era, perhaps fewer than ten per cent of the population would have identified as Muslim.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 2) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Introduction’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§“At the outset of the Umayyad period it is clear that very few of the conquered peoples had accepted Islam, however we understand this last phrase (islam literally means ‘submission’). But by the end of the period, in spite of the initial attempt by the Arabs to keep themselves apart religiously and socially from their subjects, and in spite of the refusal by caliphs and governors to allow the non-Arabs to enjoy the advantages of acceptance of Islam, large numbers of the subject peoples had come to identify themselves as Muslims.”§REF§ (Hawting 1986, 8) Hawting, G.R. 2000. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N77JAM6S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N77JAM6S </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 249, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mesopotamian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It is also clear, however, that neither Nubian nor Syro-Palestinian origins were regarded as particularly disadvantageous factors in terms of individuals' status or career prospects, particularly in the cosmopolitan climate of the New Kingdom, when Asiatic religious cults and technological developments were particularly widely accepted.” §REF§ (Shaw 2000, 309) Shaw, Ian. ‘Egypt and the Outside World’. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§ The following quote demonstrates a little about what is known of foreigners living in Egypt around this time period. It covers the Saite and Persian occupation periods that surrounding the short Inter-Occupation period. I have not found evidence that the treatment of foreigners would have changed in the intervening Inter-Occupation Period. “The settlement at Naucratis was founded in the reign of Amasis, according to Herodotus, but Strabo suggests that it was founded by Milesians who came to Greece in the time of Psamtek I. Greeks were living there as early as before 600 BCE. The participants in the founding of Naucratis were eastern Greeks; this is confirmed by the pottery and other finds from the site. Although an unusual Greek settlement – it was founded by several cities under the grant of pharaoh, and was overlooked by a large Egyptian fort – it was much like a Greek colony in that it preserved an entirely Greek way of life. The extent to which the Greeks of Naucratis had contacts with the mercenaries in the service of pharaoh is a question that is not answerable at present. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that a substantial Greek community, complete with temples and other Greek institutions, as well as news from the homeland via recent arrivals, would have been attractive to the Greek soldiers stationed in Memphis. […]We do not have evidence of a Carian merchant community parallel to that of the Greeks at Naucratis, so we do not know what other roles the Carians may have played in Egypt. But the reference to Caromemphites in later sources indicates the continuity of residence of Carians in Egypt down to the Hellenistic period and beyond. […] although the links between Egypt and Phoenicia were age old […], the connection was reinforced when a Phoenician garrison was established in Memphis late in the reign of Psamtek I. Like the Greeks and the Carians, the Phoenicians established a permanent presence in the Egyptian capital, building a cluster of sanctuaries dedicated to their principal gods. They remained in service to the Saite kings, contributing both soldiers to their campaigns and naval resources. Their presence survived the transfer of power to the Persians, as it naturally would, given the willing incorporation of the Phoenician home cities into the Persian empire. […]Another aspect of cultural cohesion at work in Saite Egypt was the establishment of religious and cultural institutions to serve the needs of the foreign soldiers. Among the Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, and Aramaeans, syncretizing tendencies might have allowed worship of their gods at Egyptian sanctuaries; nevertheless, whenever possible these various communities would have preferred to worship in sanctuaries dedicated to their own respective gods. Little evidence survives for such institutions in Memphis. The sanctuaries at Naucratis served this purpose for the Greeks living there; but much of Greek religious and cultural life was strictly local, and so the needs of the mercenaries in Memphis must have been serviced in the Ionikon. Little is known about the religious life of the Carians, either in Egypt or in their homeland. For the Phoenicians, the ‘Camp of the Tyrians’ in Memphis had a sanctuary of Proteus and a temple to Astarte and probably other shrines as well.71 The Aramaeans in Syene had the benefit of several temples, to Bethel and the Queen of Heaven, to Banit, and to Nabu; all of these are greeted in the letters to individuals in Syene found at Hermopolis.72 In addition, references to other Aramaean gods receiving donations strongly suggests their active worship in the community in Syene. Among the Jews of Elephantine, the religious needs of the community were met by the Temple of YHW. The absolute necessity of such a structure to the Jews of the Elephantine garrison is made plain by the fact that it is virtually the only such temple outside of Jerusalem in this period and the fact that it was maintained in the face of determined hostility from the local Egyptian priesthood.” §REF§ (Kaplan 2010, 3-17) Kaplan, Phillip. ‘Cross-cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt’. Mediterranean Historical Review. Vol. 18. Pp. 1-31. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3TFGDR9I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3TFGDR9I </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 88, "name": "in_post_mauryan_k", "long_name": "Post-Mauryan Kingdoms", "start_year": -205, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Saivism flourished in the Kadamba dominions for a long time. But it did not have an undisputed sway over the people, for it had to contend with other religious rivals, such as Buddhism and Jainism.” §REF§ (Moraes and Heras 1932: 250) George M. Moraes & Heras, H. (1932). The Kadamba Kula: A history of ancient and mediaeval Karnataka. Bombay: Furtado. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4A35K9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QJ4A35K9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The same three religions – Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism – met a foreigner observer, whether he was travelling in Benghal or in Maharashtra.” §REF§ (Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 5) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. (1949) 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8X6M5DJZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8X6M5DJZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Several temples, associated with different gods and goddesses were erected during their rule by the members of the royal family. Besides the Vaishnava and Saiva temples, we also find Jain ones and those of Aditya and Ganapati built during the paramountcy of the Early Chalukyas.” §REF§ (Dikshit 1980: 12) Dikshit, D. P. (1980). Political history of the Chālukyas of Badami. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ACXSGNV5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ACXSGNV5 </b></a>§REF§ “Stone inscriptions found on Jain and Buddhist religious structures at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Lakshmeshwar reveal the names of Chalukya rulers who were Hindu or their subordinates, also Hindus, as sponsors of these structures. Besides the various forms of Hinduism that flourished within Chalukya territories and beyond, Jainism was a major religion in the subcontinent at this time and Buddhism, while still in vogue began to have less and less adherents in the centuries of Chalukya rule and later.” §REF§ (Kadambi 2011:205) Hemanth Kadambi, 2011. Sacred Landscapes in Early Medieval South India: the Chalukya state and society (ca. AD 550-750), PhD dissertation, University of Michigan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AEI5FSCM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AEI5FSCM </b></a> §REF§<br>NB the following quote does not state the degree of prevalence but it gives an approximate estimate of the population. “Stone inscriptions found on Jain and Buddhist religious structures at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Lakshmeshwar reveal the names of Chalukya rulers who were Hindu or their subordinates, also Hindus, as sponsors of these structures. Besides the various forms of Hinduism that flourished within Chalukya territories and beyond, Jainism was a major religion in the subcontinent at this time and Buddhism, while still in vogue began to have less and less adherents in the centuries of Chalukya rule and later.” §REF§ (Kadambi 2011:205) Hemanth Kadambi, 2011. Sacred Landscapes in Early Medieval South India: the Chalukya state and society (ca. AD 550-750), PhD dissertation, University of Michigan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AEI5FSCM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AEI5FSCM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 411, "name": "in_bahmani_sultanate", "long_name": "Bahmani Sultanate", "start_year": 1347, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The anti-Tughluqid sentiment of the Bahmani sultans also expressed itself in extending a warm welcome to Persians, Arabs and Central Asians from outside North India. [...] The majority of [Muslims] from Persian backgrounds, those from the Ismaili background and their Indian converts such as the Khojas and the Bohras, were Shia. The Shia were influential in the regional Bahmani Sultanate owing to the strong Persian presence there.\" §REF§(Avari 2013: 89-91) Avari, B. Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WMT9BJKT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WMT9BJKT </b></a>§REF§<br>\"The majority of [Muslims] from Persian backgrounds, those from the Ismaili background and their Indian converts such as the Khojas and the Bohras, were Shia. The Shia were influential in the regional Bahmani Sultanate owing to the strong Persian presence there.\" §REF§(Avari 2013: 91) Avari, B. Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WMT9BJKT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WMT9BJKT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The total Buddhist population in the Deccan at the middle of the 7th century could not have been much more than 10,000, and that number may have further dwindled down by the beginning of our period ” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 271), Anant Sadashiv Altekar, 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§ “Buddhism was losing ground rapidly in the Deccan of our period. The spread and popularity of Jainism may have been, partly at its cost” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 306), Anant Sadashiv Altekar, 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§ “Three inscriptions belonging to the reign of Amoghavarsha I attest to the existence of a Buddhist Sangha at Kanheri.” “Three inscriptions belonging to the reign of Amoghavarsha I attest to the existence of a Buddhist Sangha at Kanheri.” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 306), Anant Sadashiv Altekar, 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§<br>The total population was about 5mln people, information taken from the wiki, which makes 10,000 Buddhist at most a very small minority. “The total Buddhist population in the Deccan at the middle of the 7th century could not have been much more than 10,000, and that number may have further dwindled down by the beginning of our period ” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 271), Anant Sadashiv Altekar, 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The inhabitants of the Vijayanagara Empire practiced Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism and worshipped various local gods and goddesses.” §REF§ (Sinopoli 2000, 364). Sinopoli, Carla M. 2000. 'From the Lion Throne: Political and Social Dynamics of the Vijayanagara Empire'. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol 43, No. 3., pp. 364. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VGV938CA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VGV938CA </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Despite their change of faith the Hoysalas continued to fund Jain temples.” §REF§ (Sahai 1994: 66) Sahai, Surendra. \"Temples of Karnataka.\" Architecture Plus Design, vol. 11, no. 2, 1994, pp. 64-67. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C6Q3SFME\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C6Q3SFME </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Despite Hinduism's popularity as the religion of choice by both the Chalukyan royal family and the masses at large, the Chalukyan dynasty was tolerant of other religions and coexisted with followers of Jainist and Buddhist traditions, although Buddhism was becoming less popular in the region.\" §REF§ (Sasaki 2012, 15) Sasaki, Bryce. 2012. “Chalukya Dynasties.” Edited by Andrea Stanton, Edward Ramsamy, Peter Seybolt, and Carolyn Elliott. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks, Calif.; London: SAGE Publications.Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG9MHRIA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PG9MHRIA </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The advent of Jainism in Karnatakais assigned to the fourth century B.C.” §REF§ (Dayma 2005: 156) Dayma, Yogender. (2005). STRUCTURE OF LEGITIMATION UNDER THE EARLY KADAMBAS. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 66, 155–166. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NTBSDJQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4NTBSDJQ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "According to expert, Stephen C Corey, \" There was a sizeable indigenous Jewish community in Morocco and not much of an indigenous Christian population. Christianity was probably the third most widespread religion, mostly because it was practiced by Europeans who were resident in Morocco at the time and some Moriscos (baptized former Spanish Muslims who had left Spain due to persecution after 1492 or expulsion after 1609).\" \r\n\r\n\"Moreover, the religious persecutions that characterized late medieval Iberia, the conquest of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs, and the expulsion of the Jews in 1492 caused thousands of Muslims and Jews to flee to North Africa. The western Maghreb was one of the areas preferred by the exiles, not only because of its proximity to the Iberian Peninsula, but also because many had commercial, social and family networks there. [...] [A]t the time of the Portuguese conquest at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Spanish chronicler said that the city of Azamor had ‘more than five thousand populated houses, and among them four hundred houses of Jewish dealers who lived in their law’. [...] With respect to the ‘mellahization’ of the Jews of Marrakech, Mármol, who was there before the creation of the mellah, did indeed note that this was a decision made by the sultans without the community having a choice: ‘In the middle of the city there used to be the Jewish quarter in a neighbourhood where there were more than three thousand houses, and a few years ago Moulay Abdala ordered it moved from there and put it in another neighbourhood that is next to the door of Bab Ahmet, stuck to the very city wall, so that the Jews were not among the Moors’. [...] In his Misión Historial published in 1708, Fray Francisco de San Juan del Puerto wrote about the situation of the separated Jewish quarters: ‘They have the Moors in all cities, public Jewish quarters, and so populous; the smaller ones have more than a thousand Jews, some reaching eight thousand. These Jewish quarters have their doors, attended by Moorish guards, who close them without letting [the Jews] go out at night, forcing them to pay something for everything that goes in’.\" §REF§ (Ojeda-Mata 2020: 109, 114, 116, 117) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HBD6T7K8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HBD6T7K8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote states that there were minority Christian and Jewish populations living in al-Andalus and the Maghrib at the time of the Almoravid empire: ‘The area with the largest Christian population was al-Andalus where Christians could be found in both urban and rural settings… In comparison with the Christians, the smaller Jewish population was more evenly spread across the entire region from Ifriqiya through the Maghrib and western Sahara to al-Andalus. It was also predominantly urban, with the exception of parts of the western Maghrib where some indigenous Jewish communities, known as Judaeo-Berbers, lived in villages… The urban Jews of the Islamic west maintained close relations with co-religionists in northern Christian lands and Jewish communities across the Mediterranean and eastern Islamic lands, and their economic, social and cultural life flourished under Islamic rule.’ §REF§ Bennison, A. (2016) The Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press, pp. 166-167. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MR68IHJ8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MR68IHJ8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“But when Kumaragupta was ruling, we come across an inscription at Mathura underneath a large Jaina image dated to the Gupta era 113 which would correspond to A.D. 432.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 331) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “There is yet another inscription which is of equal value to a student of Jainism. The Udayagiri cave inscription of Kumaragupta I records how a devotee by the name Sankara installed the image of the Jaina which represented the Tirthankara Parsvanatha near the cave. It is further recorded that Sankara who is said to be a son of Asvapati Sanghila was a student of Acarya Gosarman. Further it is stated that this shrine had rich endowments in the shape of ornaments and other images. It transpires therefore that in the period of the early Guptas Jainism was also prevalent though not in a prosperous condition.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 323) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “It would thus appear that Jainism was not much in favour during the time when the early Guptas occupied Northern India.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 332) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§<br>“It transpires therefore that in the period of the early Guptas Jainism was also prevalent though not in a prosperous condition.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 323) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “It would thus appear that Jainism was not much in favour during the time when the early Guptas occupied Northern India.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 332) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 414, "name": "in_ganga_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Middle Ganga", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"In the Mughal empire, in contrast to the Safavid and Ottoman empires, there were no national festivals. Instead there were many different celebrations, each keyed to one of the several calendars and eras. Different days were declared auspicious and commemorated according to religion (Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Zoroastrian, or Muslim), sect (Sunni or Shiite Muslim, Vaisnavite or Shaivite Hindu), ethnicity (Iranian, Afghan, or Turani), gender (male or female), region (Bengal or Maharashtra), class (rich or poor), or location (rural or urban). [...] Although Muslims (peasants, artisans, soldiers, officials, and officeholders) comprised perhaps 15–20 percent of the population, the vast majority of Indians were non-Muslims – mostly Hindus with a sprinkling of Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians.\" §REF§ (Blake 2013: 84-87) Blake, Stephen P. 2013. Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires. United States, Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9AM5CUE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9AM5CUE </b></a> §REF§<br>“Although Muslims (peasants, artisans, soldiers, officials, and officeholders) comprised perhaps 15–20 percent of the population, the vast majority of Indians were non-Muslims – mostly Hindus with a sprinkling of Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians.” §REF§ (Blake 2013, 87) Blake, Stephen P. 2013. Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires. United States, Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9AM5CUE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9AM5CUE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from preceding and succeeding polities." }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Jain sources providing information on the Mahajanapadas are mentioned and discussed in Chakrabarti (2000) §REF§Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BMIEUVTP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BMIEUVTP </b></a>§REF§, but due to incomplete access, an apt quote from this chapter cannot be extracted at present.<br>The fact that the founders of Buddhism and Jainism were contemporary with the Mahajanapadas§REF§(Chakrabarti 2000) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BMIEUVTP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BMIEUVTP </b></a>§REF§ suggests that both their religions would have been in the minority compared to Vedic Hinduism." }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 390, "name": "in_magadha_k", "long_name": "Magadha", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 605 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from preceding and succeeding polities." }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The influence and range of Jainism was much less than those of Buddhism. The followers of this sect did not seem to have spread beyond the confines of Bihar and Ujjain at the commencement of the Mauryan epoch, though there is testimony to show what towards the end of the reign of Candragupta there was a Jaina migration to South India.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 261) Dikshitar, V.R. Ramachandra. 1993. The Mauryan Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5AXDPMXJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5AXDPMXJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 630, "name": "sl_polonnaruva", "long_name": "Polonnaruwa", "start_year": 1070, "end_year": 1255 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“As stated above, the transfer of the capital to Polonnaruva has been portrayed as connected with a religious shift towards a more pluralistic and eclectic patronage at state-level, incorporating Buddhist, Brahmanical and Saivite practices. Indrapala has suggested that in tandem with the widespread appearance of tenth-century Tamil inscriptions dated to the regal years of Cōḻa rulers, there was also an increase in Saiva temples. In the chronicles, it is also stated that Parākramabāhu I (r. 1153–86 CE) constructed twenty-four temples to the gods, and Pathmanathan has recorded the presence of at least fourteen temples within Polonnaruva. In support of this plurality, archaeological investigations at Polonnaruva have identified Saiva and Vaisnava shrines with bronze Nataraja, Śiva and Parvati images. A twelfth-century inscription of Niśśaṅkamalla (r. 1187–96 CE) at Dambulla recorded the construction of a Hindu temple as well as the restoration and construction of Buddhist temples. In Anurādhapura itself, structures north of Abhayagiri dating to the later phases of the city’s occupation were identified as ‘Hindu ruins’ on the basis of their architectural layout and the recovery of several lingams, although this identification has been contested.\"§REF§ Coningham et al. 2017, 37) Coningham et al. 2017. ‘Archaeology and cosmopolitanism in early historic and medieval Sri Lanka.’ Sri Lanka at the Crossroads of History. Edited by Zoltán Biedermann and Alan Strathern. London: UCL Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DCQMW8E3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DCQMW8E3 </b></a> §REF§<br>\"But despite all these alien intrusions, Theravada Buddhism has dominated the religious and cultural life of the country throughout its recorded history, which can be said to begin with the arrival of Mahinda in c. 250 bce (though the chronicle begins earlier). In particu- lar, for most of the period virtually all Sinhalese have been Theravada Buddhists; the only numerically significant exception is the Roman Catholic community on the west coast, many of them fishermen, converted by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century.\"§REF§(Gombrich 2006: 138) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G397KJFR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G397KJFR </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 743, "name": "nl_dutch_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Dutch Empire", "start_year": 1815, "end_year": 1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "In Sri Lanka: \"Looking behind the official silence of the Dutch records and putting together minor evidences one could sense that the traditional indigenous religions like Buddhism and Hinduism remained as the submerged mass of an ice-berg.\" §REF§(Paranavitana 2004, 10) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAUD9EW9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PAUD9EW9 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 627, "name": "in_pandya_emp_3", "long_name": "Pandya Empire", "start_year": 1216, "end_year": 1323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Jainism had a little more importance than Buddhism. [...] Yet Jains continued their hold in Pandinadu.\" §REF§(Nyathi 2016: 52) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5GBCUTGG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5GBCUTGG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 671, "name": "ni_dahomey_k", "long_name": "Foys", "start_year": 1715, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1600, "year_to": 1860, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 200, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "blank", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It was not until the mid-nineteenth century that Europeans established their first permanent missions in Dahomey, beginning with Ouidah’s Catholic mission in 1861 (Alladaye 2003; Clement 1996; François 1906; Henry 2008b).” §REF§ (Falen 2022:50) Falen, Douglas J. “UNIVERSALISM AND SYNCRETISM IN BENINESE VODÚN.” In Eric J. Montgomery, Timothy Landry and Christian Vannier (eds.) Spirit Service: Vodún and Vodou in the African Atlantic World,. Indiana University Press, 2022, pp. 40–69. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XT5IEBHJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XT5IEBHJ </b></a> §REF§" } ] }