Widespread Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Widespread Religions.
GET /api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api
{ "count": 1205, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 19, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Qadiri Sufi Order", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In 1636, the Saadi Sultan Muhammed al-Sheik dispatched artisans to construct a mausoleum for Muhammad al-Hajji’s father and urged the new Sufi leader to recognize his authority. After the failure of this initial attempt, the Sultan offered to allocate a part of the tribute of the Middle Atlas to the up keep of the zawiya if the Sufi leader agreed to submit, threatening him with force if he did not. The battle between the two fighting entities took place in 1638 and the army sent by the Sultan was vanquished. The end of the Dala’iyya Sufi order /state had to wait until 1678 when a sultan from the Alawite dynasty named Moulay Ismail- probably the toughest sultan in this dynasty defeated Ahmad al-Dala’iyya in a battle that forced him to remain at large until his mysterious death in 1680.” […] “In fact, by the late 1620s, three important religious brotherhoods emerged as sites of opposition to a dismembered Saadian Empire: The Dala’iyaa in the Middle Atlas, the Semlaliyya in the Sous valley, and the Arab tribesmen in the Atlantic littoral led by the Al’Ayyashi.” […] “The first Moroccan Sufi order is the Jazouli order, founded by Muhammad Ben Slimane Jazouli. The Jazouli order was behind the advent of the Saadian dynasty in Morocco; in the sense that it created a culture of Sharifism, which would become the basis for Saadian legitimacy. The Moroccan historian Ahmed Naciri wrote eloquently in his famous treatise Kitab el istiqca about the feat that the Saadian Sultan Mohammed Cheikh el Mahdi had about the growing importance of Sufi orders, which led him to wage a war without mercy against them: in the year 958, the Sultan Cheikh ordered a persecution operation against the heads of Sufi orders and all the people who aspired to become Sufi leaders because the threatened his emerging kingdom. The laity had, in fact, a great faith in these saints, and befriended them, paying attention to a minor signal from their part and taking as a sacred command the utterances of these saintsas they were interpreted by them. (Naciri 1906: 41) The persecution of the Sufi lodges by the Saadian Sultan Cheikh was performed under the pretext that some of their funds were remmants from the previous dynasty, the Merinid kingdom. The Sultan ordered the Sufis to pay new taxes and closed some of their lodges, such as the lodge of Moulay Abdullah el Kouch in Marrakech.” […] “The Saadian sultan then used the Jazouli order to counter act the Qadiri order which was no more than a puppet of the Turkish establishment in Algeria in Morocco. In fact, Drague adds: ‘The Qadiri order, fought by the disciples of the Chadili-Jazouli order and scorned by the Saadian princes because of their closeness to the Algerian Turks, did not create a new branch in Morocco.” §REF§ (Bousaria 2015: 54-56) Bousaria, Abdelilah. 2015. Sufism and Politics in Morocco: Activism and Dissent. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4C3XW92W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4C3XW92W </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 22, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "indigenous African beliefs", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote discusses non-Muslim and non-Mande groups. It is highly likely that these communities had their own belief systems differing from Islam and the Mande religion. “Among the many other peoples of the Mali Empire were non-Mande ethnic groups who were identified with particular occupations. For example, the Dogon, Senufo, and many others were farmers. Nomadic cattle herders following the seasonal rains to find grass for their herds were called Fula. The Bozo and Somono were river specialists who built boats and canoes for fishing and transporting goods and people.” §REF§ (Conrad 2010: 20) Conrad, David. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. New York: Chelsea House. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6PN6FJGQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6PN6FJGQ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 414, "name": "in_ganga_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Middle Ganga", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 29, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sikhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although Muslims (peasants, artisans, soldiers, officials, and officeholders) comprised perhaps 15–20 percent of the population, the vast majority of Indians were non-Muslims – mostly Hindus with a sprinkling of Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians.” §REF§ (Blake 2013, 87) Blake, Stephen P. 2013. Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires. United States, Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9AM5CUE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9AM5CUE </b></a> §REF§ “The Christians were in India at the time of the Mughals […] The number was not very large if the cross breeds were left out.” §REF§ (Roy-Choudhury 1941, 347) Roy-Chowdhury, M. L., & Sastri, R. C. 1941. “Position of Christians in the Mughal empire. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 5, 347–353. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DD85U5M9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DD85U5M9 </b></a>§REF§ “Jewish commerce has a long history in India. The presence of Jews in different parts of India is attested by the contemporary observations especially at different port towns. They were settled in numerous towns of India as also of other parts of Asia which were in alignment with the trading network of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. […] One very significant reason [ for the presence of Jews during the Mughal Empire] seems to be the policy of tolerance adopted by Emperor Akbar towards his subjects. It is reflected explicitly in Akbar's interest in various religions. Abul Fazl writes that in 3 October, 1578, 'The wide capacity and the toleration of the shadow of God were unveiled. Sufi, philosopher, orator, jurist, Sunni, Shia, Brahman, Jati, Siura (Jains), Carbak, Nazarene, Jew, Sabi (Sabian), Zoroastrian, and others enjoyed exquisite pleasure...'.75 Nearly similar tendency is reflected towards Jews in the Mughal empire when Thomas Roe (1617) reported about Jahangir's attitude towards his subjects! \"The good king fell to dispute of the lawes of Moses, Jesus and Mahomett; and in drinck was soe kinde that hee turned to mee, and said: Am I a king? You shalbe welcome: Christians, Moores, Jewes, hee meddled not with their faith: they came all in love, and hee would protect them from wrong: they lived under his safety and none should oppresse them; and this often repeated, ...'” §REF§ (Alam 2004, 267, 272) Ishrat Alam 2004. “Jewish Merchants in the Mughal Empire”, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, pp.267-276. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XS6TWMZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XS6TWMZI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The ascetics were known under the general name of Sramana. Although the Buddhists alone appropriated this title to themselves in later times, the order of the Sramanas originated in the Brahmanical fold. It assumed a distinct shape in the Nanda-Maurya period.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1988, 294) Bagchi, P.C. 1988. ‘Religion’ In Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Edited by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidess Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMX36Z7M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMX36Z7M </b></a> §REF§ “The Nigrantha order was even less important than the Ajivika but it managed to survive the latter up to later times and to rise into greater importance.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1988, 300) Bagchi, P.C. 1988. ‘Religion’ In Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Edited by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidess Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMX36Z7M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMX36Z7M </b></a> §REF§ “The contemporary Greek writers speak of a god named Dionysus along with Heracles. Megasthenes tells us that the Oxydrakai claimed descent from Dionysus, ‘because the vine grew in their country, and their processions were conducted with great pomp, and their kings on going forth to war and on other occasions marched in Bacchic fashion with drums beating.’ Megasthenes also informs us that the worshippers of Dionysus lived on mountains and observed certain customs which were Bacchanalian. They dressed in muslin, wore turbans, used perfume and arrayed themselves in garments dyed in bright features.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1988, 307) Bagchi, P.C. 1988. ‘Religion’ In Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Edited by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidess Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMX36Z7M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMX36Z7M </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 743, "name": "nl_dutch_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Dutch Empire", "start_year": 1815, "end_year": 1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Reformed Church, as it became the dominant religious force in this new and unprecedented political entity, did not acquire the exclusive status previously enjoyed by the Catholic Church. Calvinists only comprised a small minority of the population of the Dutch Republic, and the church was never able to enforce a position analogous to Protestant churches in some territories of the Holy Roman Empire after the Peace of Augsburg. Despite being the official church of the United Provinces, it had to accept freedom of conscience, and to some extent freedom of private worship, for Lutherans, Anabaptists, and even Catholics. Strict Calvinists, while not advocating confessional diversity, were well aware of the limitations of their authority in religious affairs, with many people in the Dutch Republic rejecting their beliefs and their insistence on church discipline.\" §REF§(van Groesen 2007, 6) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F9I4B97H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F9I4B97H </b></a>§REF§ \"[...] financially powerful Sephardic Jews who flocked to Amsterdam provided an international network as well as significant investments to stimulate Iberian and overseas trade.\" §REF§(van Groesen 2007, 7) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F9I4B97H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F9I4B97H </b></a>§REF§ \"Mennonites and Lutherans were generally allowed to worship in private, as they were considered to have no ulterior, political motives, while this same freedom was denied to Catholics and Arminians, amongst whom these motives were assumed. [...] While Lutherans in Amsterdam enjoyed their beautiful churches their co-religionists in Leeuwarden had a hard time getting permission to worship in a private house and were never allowed public worship until the end of the ancien régime. Holland officially admitted Catholic priests in 1730, Friesland did not do so until 1776.\"§REF§(Spaans 2002) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7KR3GNAS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7KR3GNAS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 608, "name": "gm_kaabu_emp", "long_name": "Kaabu", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 52, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Methodist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "In talking with expert Mariama Khan she mentioned that during this time there had already been missionary action by Portugues and Methodists. “By the time Kaabu collapsed in 1867, Europeans had already marked their presence in the upper Guinea coast and in the Senegambia region as a result of the slave trade, previous voyages of exploration and missionary work.” §REF§ (Khan :2021) Khan, Mariama. 2021. Politics in the Gambia and Guinea-Bissau: Precolonial Influence on the Postcolonial State. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G479EGSJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G479EGSJ </b></a> §REF§ The following quote discusses the Portuguese element in Gambia which also implies its Catholic influence within the region. “In 1446 the Portuguese explorer Nuno Tristao sailed into the Bijagos Archipelago and up some rivers, though he died on his return trip. It was not until ten years later that Diogo Gomes returned to Portugal to tell of the ‘Rivers of Guinea’. The estuaries facilitated trade, and the coastal market town of Cacheu was the commercial centre of the region from the later fifteenth to nineteenth century […] Portuguese and mesticos, or those of indigenous and European decent, traded alcohol, horses, manufactured goods, textiles, and weapons for copra (coconut flesh, containing the oil), gold, ivory, palm oil, and increasingly slaves. Kaabu and other chiefdoms and kingdoms had long been involved in the Arab trabs-Saharan slave trade and simply shifted some of this trade to the Portuguese on the coast.” §REF§ (Appiah and Gates 2010: 540) Appiah, Kwame and Gates Jr, Henry Louis. 2010. Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB5MQ9IS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FB5MQ9IS </b></a> §REF§ The following quote highlights the presence of Methodist missionaries in the Gambia. “Far from some how being ‘unchanging’ and ossified in a ‘primitive past’, West Africa religious beliefs and social structures transformed themselves in this era. They were new and as specific to the eighteenth century as, say, Christian Methodism and the Salafiya reform movement of Islam’ they were the West African response to modernity, just as Methodism and Salafism embodied Christian and Muslim responses.” §REF§ (Green: 2019) Green, Toby. 2019. A Fist Full of Shells: West Africa from the Rise of the Slave Trade to the Age of Revolution. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HRAMEJ9E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HRAMEJ9E </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At the height of its power, the Portuguese, the Portuguese maritime empire in Asia had a presence that spread along coastal cities from Western India to Southern Japan. Missionaries and soldiers made their presence felt in territories under Portuguese rule or where the Portuguese rule or where the Portuguese were present in small numbers as guests of local rulers […] Valignano spent time in both Japan and Macau, and was able to recognise by the end of the sixteenth century that there were different sects of the bonzos [monks] that interpreted their doctrine differently. That the Jesuit viewed this sectarianism as a flaw and a sign of confusion among Buddhists is almost beside the point, since his writings demonstrate that early modern authors in Portuguese Asia knew Buddhism was not only spread across much of Asia but that it also could take distinctly different forms. The early development of European knowledge about Buddhism was directly supported by the expansion of Portuguese imperialism and trade throughout maritime Asia.” §REF§ (Berkwitz 2017: 37) Berkwitz, Stephen C. 2017. ‘The Portuguese Discovery of Buddhism: Locating Religion in Early Modern Asia. In Locating Religions: Contacts, Diversity, Translocality. Edited by Nikolas Jaspart et.al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87HIGJKH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87HIGJKH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 708, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1495, "end_year": 1579 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 73, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Traditional African Religions", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At the height of its power, the Portuguese, the Portuguese maritime empire in Asia had a presence that spread along coastal cities from Western India to Southern Japan. Missionaries and soldiers made their presence felt in territories under Portuguese rule or where the Portuguese rule or where the Portuguese were present in small numbers as guests of local rulers […] Valignano spent time in both Japan and Macau, and was able to recognise by the end of the sixteenth century that there were different sects of the bonzos [monks] that interpreted their doctrine differently. That the Jesuit viewed this sectarianism as a flaw and a sign of confusion among Buddhists is almost beside the point, since his writings demonstrate that early modern authors in Portuguese Asia knew Buddhism was not only spread across much of Asia but that it also could take distinctly different forms. The early development of European knowledge about Buddhism was directly supported by the expansion of Portuguese imperialism and trade throughout maritime Asia.” §REF§ (Berkwitz 2017: 37) Berkwitz, Stephen C. 2017. ‘The Portuguese Discovery of Buddhism: Locating Religion in Early Modern Asia. In Locating Religions: Contacts, Diversity, Translocality. Edited by Nikolas Jaspart et.al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87HIGJKH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87HIGJKH </b></a> §REF§ “Portuguese presence in Mwenemutapa Kingdom, and indeed in the rest of Mozambique, was never accepted by Africans. In a bid to access mineral deposits, the Portuguese sent a religious mission in 1560 whose aim was to pacify and convert the king and his subjects to the Catholic religion. The mission failed and its leader was killed, as he was suspected of having nefarious intentions. Further attempts by the Portuguese to control the Mwenemutapa Kingdom were futile, as they were repulsed.” §REF§ (Mgadla 2005: 1037) Mgadla, P.T. 2005. ‘Mozambique: Colonial Period and Rebellions.’ In Encyclopedia of African History. Edited Kevin Shillington. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZVCKH856\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZVCKH856 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 711, "name": "om_busaidi_imamate_1", "long_name": "Imamate of Oman and Muscat", "start_year": 1749, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"A small Goan Catholic community also existed in Zanzibar and 'enjoyed full benefit of British protection in 1879'. They were the only Christian Indians in Zanzibar.\" §REF§(Gundara 1980: 20) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ER2IP9UW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ER2IP9UW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 665, "name": "ni_aro", "long_name": "Aro", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1902 }, "year_from": 1690, "year_to": 1884, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The year 1885 was a major watershed in the Ibgo-European culture contact. In that year the Sierra Leonean pioneer missionaries in Igboland were replaced by the European Evangelicals. Two Roman Catholic congregations, the Society of African Missions (SMA) came to the western Niger area with headquarters of Asaba, and the congregation of the Holy Ghost Fathers (Spriritans) of the Roman Catholic Mission (RCM) established at Onitsha in the east. The setting up of the administration of the Royal Niger Company by the royal assent of the British Crown a significant development took place in the same year. Within three years of these major developments the Presbyterian Mission at Calabar travelled over the Cross River to Igboland and established a station at Uwana in the present Ebonyi state in Igboland.” §REF§ (Schweiker and Clairmont 2020: 99) Schweiker, William and Clairmont, David A. 2020. Religious Ethics: Meaning and Method. Chichester: Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GBSNG3WM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GBSNG3WM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 665, "name": "ni_aro", "long_name": "Aro", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1902 }, "year_from": 1885, "year_to": 1902, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 81, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Presbyterian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The year 1885 was a major watershed in the Ibgo-European culture contact. In that year the Sierra Leonean pioneer missionaries in Igboland were replaced by the European Evangelicals. Two Roman Catholic congregations, the Society of African Missions (SMA) came to the western Niger area with headquarters of Asaba, and the congregation of the Holy Ghost Fathers (Spriritans) of the Roman Catholic Mission (RCM) established at Onitsha in the east. The setting up of the administration of the Royal Niger Company by the royal assent of the British Crown a significant development took place in the same year. Within three years of these major developments the Presbyterian Mission at Calabar travelled over the Cross River to Igboland and established a station at Uwana in the present Ebonyi state in Igboland.” §REF§ (Schweiker and Clairmont 2020: 99) Schweiker, William and Clairmont, David A. 2020. Religious Ethics: Meaning and Method. Chichester: Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GBSNG3WM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GBSNG3WM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 611, "name": "si_mane_emp", "long_name": "Mane", "start_year": 1550, "end_year": 1650 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 84, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Portuguese Missionaries were prevalent in Sierra Leone during the 17th century. “In Sierra Leone the Sapes continued to carve ivory into the seventeenth century. Manuel Alvares, the Jesuit missionary who lived in Sierra Leone from 1607-1616, describes the creation of these works in his Etiopia Menor. Alvares lived on the coast of Serra Leoa and was familiar with local society.” §REF§ (Mark 2014: 245) Mark, Peter. 2014. ‘African Meanings and European African Discourse: Iconography and Semantics in Seventeenth Century Salt Cellars from Serra Leoa.’ In Religion and Trade: Cross-Cultural Exchanges in World History 1000-1900. Edited by Francesca Trivellato et. al. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J2EHGTWX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J2EHGTWX </b></a> §REF§ “The years 1620-30 in the history of Sierra Leone are by no means well documented, but there were Capuchin missionaries in Sierra Leone and about the middle of the century who never hinted at an invasion only twenty years earlier, while the Jesuits had been informed of the first Mane arrivals fifty to sixty years previously.” §REF§ (Rodney 1967: 231) Rodney, Walter. 1967. ‘A Reconsideration of the Mane Invasion of Sierra Leone.’ The Journal of African History. Vol 8:2. Pp 219-246. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZMF4UPT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZMF4UPT </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 660, "name": "ni_igodomingodo", "long_name": "Igodomingodo", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” §REF§ (Bondarenko and Roese 2001: 185-186) Bondarenko, Dmitri M. and Peter M. Roese, 2001. “Ancient Benin: Where did the First Monarchs Come from?”, Asian and African Studies, 10 (1), pp.185-198. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P4DQ36NB </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 37, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Theraväda Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest the existence of Buddhism and its secondary status relative to Hinduism and indigenous religion. “History of the Sui Dynasty also confirms the existence of Buddhist monks and nuns in Zhenla. They appear to have participated in funerary rites during the reign of Ìsànavarman I (Cœdès 1968a, 74–75), but by the time that Bhavavarman II came to power around 639, the veneration of Siva had begun to eclipse both Buddhism and all other Brahmanical cults. [...] But there are also seven specifically Buddhist inscriptions: K. 828, K. 49, K. 505, K. 755, K. 163, K. 244, and K. 132. To these we should add a few scraps of epigraphical material written in Sanskrit. K. 828 need not detain us, for it is only a small piece of grafftti, but in K. 49—a dual Sanskrit/Khmer inscription from Wat Prei Val, Kompong Trabek, Prey Veng Province, dated 664 ce—two monks (bhikUu), Ratnabhànu and Ratnasirha, are named and described as brothers. [...] The Khmer portion of the text ascribes the title “pu caƒ añ” (= sthavira), or “elder,” to both monks. Bhattacharya (1961, 16) has suggested that this means they must have belonged to the Theravada. This is possible, but the term, although monastic, really implies monastic seniority and is not convincing evidence of sectarian affiliation. Of rather more significance as evidence of possible Theravada presence in Cambodia is a portion of Pali text [K. 820] engraved on the back of a seventh-century buddha figure from Tuol Preah Theat, Prey Veng Province.25 Pali is, of course, the canonical language of the Theravada. Furthermore, Dupont (1955, 190-221) believes that the figure shows some Dvāravati influences. Another Khmer inscription from Prachinburi Province, Thailand, dated 761 CE, is not listed by Vickery, because it was discovered fairly recently (Rohanadeera 1988). It contains three Pali stanzas in homage to the triple jewel that appear to come from the Telakatāha-gāthā, a poetical text believed to have its origin in Sri Lanka. As such, it represents the strongest evidence of a Theravada presence at this period of time. To this one might add a final, though not conclusive, piece of support from a dual Sanskrit/Khmer inscription [K. 388] from Hin K'on, Nakhon Ratchasima, in the Korat region of Thailand.26 The Sanskrit portion mentions the donation of ten vihāras, four stone boundary (sīmā) markers, and some caityas by a royal monk (rājabhiksu) to “provide for the body of Sugata [= Buddha].” Also mentioned is the donation of two sets of monastic robes (civara) in a kathina ceremony. Filliozat (1981, 84) has, dubiously in my opinion, interpreted this as a reference to Theravada practice. [...] Although these specific inferences may not be correct, there does appear to have been a considerable expansion of the Mahayana throughout the Southeast Asian region from the mid-eighth century, perhaps as a result of the sponsorship of the Pāla kings of northeast India and the growing influence of Nālandã university. [...] It seems that a combination of tantric ideas and symbols contained within a Hindu-Buddhist syncretism, common to Bengal and surrounding regions, began to make its presence felt in Cambodia from around this time. The erection of an image of Śri Vidyādhārani (= Prajñāpāramitā) by a physician—mentioned in K. 132, from Sambor Prei Kuk and dated 708 CE—may conceivably fit this context, while a Sanskrit inscription from the same location [K. 604], dated 627 CE, tells us that a Brahmanical teacher of the Śaiva Pāśupata sect, Vidyāviśeśa by name, had studied Buddhism, although it is impossible to say whether this study took place in Cambodia or in India.” §REF§ Harris, I. (2008). Origins to the Fall of Angkor. p.9-11. In Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Honolulu. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S9J7EKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S9J7EKX </b></a> §REF§“There is strong evidence that Buddhism also played a role in Chenla. Both Mahayana and Therevada Buddhism were practiced in Southeast Asia, but the former was more prevalent. Rarely was Buddhism adopted by the roval family, but it was likely practiced by some members of the elite.” §REF§ O'Reilly, D. J. (2006). Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian Polities. p.113-114. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Rowman Altamira. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB628MBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB628MBV </b></a>§REF§ “Buddhism, although known and apparently practiced, was very much a minor religion at this time.” §REF§ Steadman, S. R. (2016). Chapter 14: From Hunter-Gatherer to Empire. p.234-235. Archaeology of religion: cultures and their beliefs in worldwide context. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VIRUTCPJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VIRUTCPJ </b></a>§REF§<br>The following quotes suggest the existence of Buddhism and its secondary status relative to Hinduism and indigenous religion. “History of the Sui Dynasty also confirms the existence of Buddhist monks and nuns in Zhenla. They appear to have participated in funerary rites during the reign of Ìsànavarman I (Cœdès 1968a, 74–75), but by the time that Bhavavarman II came to power around 639, the veneration of Siva had begun to eclipse both Buddhism and all other Brahmanical cults.” §REF§ Harris, I. (2008). Origins to the Fall of Angkor. p.9. In Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Honolulu. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S9J7EKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S9J7EKX </b></a> §REF§“There is strong evidence that Buddhism also played a role in Chenla. Both Mahayana and Therevada Buddhism were practiced in Southeast Asia, but the former was more prevalent. Rarely was Buddhism adopted by the roval family, but it was likely practiced by some members of the elite.” §REF§ O'Reilly, D. J. (2006). Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian Polities. p.113-114. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Rowman Altamira. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB628MBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB628MBV </b></a>§REF§ “Buddhism, although known and apparently practiced, was very much a minor religion at this time.” §REF§ Steadman, S. R. (2016). Chapter 14: From Hunter-Gatherer to Empire. p.234-235. Archaeology of religion: cultures and their beliefs in worldwide context. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VIRUTCPJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VIRUTCPJ </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests the presence of some Christians in the Qasimi Dynasty, although it should be noted that their mention appears limited beyond this, in the literature consulted: “In the early Qasimi period, the point is also well illustrated by a story which is narrated by QadI al-Haymi when he was on his mission in Ethiopia. Here a Coptic priest called Khatirus mentioned to al-Hayml his wish to return to Yemen with him on condition that he could keep his religion. Al-Hayml responded by saying: \"How many Jews and Christians are there who, like you, ask the Muslims for protection and come to our regions in safety and Some remain while paying Jizya fixed per head, and some stay for a short time and then return to their country.\" Zaydi imams, and the sayyids more generally, did not make an issue of non-Muslims living in Yemen.” §REF§ (Haykel 2003, PAGE 116) B. Haykel. 2003. Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZQNUAHA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZQNUAHA </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Throughout the following year Barbarossa pursued his policy of subordinating the Catholic islands of the Aegean to Istanbul. He razed the Cretan coastal cities and other Venetian ports. The Turkish admiral’s activities at sea, and Suleyman’s menacing position in East Europe, roused Pope Clement VII to form yet one more Western coalition against the Turkish menace. Calling it the Holy League, he proclaimed it in Rome on 8 February 1538.” §REF§ (Frazee 2006, 40) Frazee, Charles, A. 2006. Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UZ2G64IP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UZ2G64IP </b></a> §REF§ “Well-known fatwas of Ottoman Seyhulislams, including Sadullah Sadi Efendi (d.1539), Ebussuud Efendi (d. 1574) and Kadizade Ahmet Semseddin Efendi (d. 1580), served as the necessary tools for justifying Istanbul’s oppressive actions taken against not just the subjects or soldiers of the neighbouring Safavids, but also the empire’s own subjects. At the outset, most of these religious elites. Using more sectarian language than the official orders sent to the provinces, declared any type of activity backed by the Safavids to be ‘sinful’ and insisted that any person who became Kizilbas [a Shiite sect who were also politically aligned with the Safavids. There were sizeable populations of Kizilbas in Anatolia] would be considered a rafizi, or apsostate, and that his or her property would be confiscated and their women and children enslaved.” §REF§ (Baltacıoglu-Bammer 2019, 56) Baltacioglu-Bammer, Ayse. 2019. ‘One Word, Many Implications: The Term ‘Kizilbas’ in the Early Modern Ottoman Context’. In Ottoman Sunnism: New Perspectives. Edited by Vefa Erginbas. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T62EZPE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T62EZPE8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The Ma’min or the religious followers of Sabbatai Zevi were originally Judeo-Spanish of Salonica who converted to Islam after Zevi converted to the Muslim faith. “Over time they developed a kind of mystical Islam with a Judaic component not found in mainstream Muslim life. While they attended mosque and sometimes made the haj, they initially preserved Judeo-Spanish for use within the home […] They celebrated Ramadan, and ate the rational sweets on the 10th of Moharrem, to mark the deaths of Hasan and Huseyn. Like their cooking, the eighteen commandments which they attributed to Zevi showed clearly the influence of both Muslim and Talmudic practice […] They prayed to their Messiah, ‘our King, our Redeemer,’ in ‘the name of God, the God of Israel,’ but followed many of the patterns of Muslim prayer. They increasingly followed Muslim custom in circumcising their males just before puberty, and read the Qur’an, but referred to their festivals using the Jewish calendar […]“Orthodox Christians were constantly reminded that theirs was a second-class faith […] Yet so far as the Ottomans were concerned, they were a people of the Book and one distinctly superior to the Catholic Franks. During the long wars with both Venice and Austria, Catholic missionaries were accused of leading the local Orthodox astray, and introducing them to ‘polytheism, cunning and craftiness’. When an early-eighteenth-century visitor discussed Christianity with one of Salonica’s mollahs, the later told him ‘that the three faiths, the Papist, the Lutheran, and the Calvinist are the worst, while the Greek is better than all.’” §REF§ (Mazower 2006, 73-87) Mazower, Mark. 2006. Salonica City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950. New York: Vintage Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JX5W2B2S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JX5W2B2S </b></a> §REF§ “With the establishment of the millets, the Christians of the empire were recognized by Ottoman bureaucracy as existing in a social hierarchy governed either by the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch from his see in the Phanar/Fenar district of the capital or by the Apostolic Armenian Patriarch of Istanbul, housed in Kum Kapi. The Christians of the Asian and African provinces who were neither Orthodox nor Armenians- Copts, Jacobites, Marionites and Nestorians- were officially placed under the political, if not spiritual direction of the Armenian patriarch although that authority was typically exercised only in the defence of traditionalist clergy against Catholic sympathisers.” §REF§ (Masters 2008, 273) Master, Bruce. 2008. ‘Christians in a Changing World.’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S5T73JIE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: S5T73JIE </b></a> §REF§ “The Ottoman state also reacted intuitively and pragmatically in many cases: they relentlessly pursued Kilibas sympathisers in Anotolia during the emergence of the Safavid Empire, but tolerated Yazidis and Nusayris in Syria and Lebanon in the following two centuries.” §REF§ (Erginbas 2019, 2) Erginbas, Vefa. 2019 ‘Introduction’. In Ottoman Sunnism: New Perspectives. Edited by Vefa Erginbas. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T62EZPE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T62EZPE8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“There is a further question related to this subject whether the Turks who came and settled in Anatolia in both periods were, or were not, Muslims. Various traces in the sources show that while the great majority of Turks had either been Muslims for some time or were recent converts, there were also Uyghurs and Kipcaks, even if in small numbers, who had not abandoned Buddhism or Manichaeism, as well as Christian Turks who had converted to Nestorianism while still in Central Asia. There were still Nestorian Turks in the Ottoman period. Thus even in the sixteenth century one come across groups (Taife-i or Cemaat-i Gebran) registered in tahrir defters as Christian populations despite having Turkish names. Western and Turkish historians have put forward various theories about these names. It seems highly probable that they were Turks who had joined the Nestorian sect and become Christian while still in Central Asia or who had perhaps become Orthodox after crossing into Anatolia. With the exception of these non-Muslim groups, however, the vast majority of the Turks in Anatolia were Muslims. The local population on the other hand was Christian, the great majority being Orthodox while some belonged to other Christian sects.” […] “At the time of the Turk’s arrival the people of the region, called Rum in the Muslim sources, were composed of the original local population which had intermixed with the Greek population of the towns of western Anatolia and had become Christian. This population without doubt constituted the most significant element. An important percentage of the population was made up of villages who had settled in the countryside and were engaged in agriculture. They must certainly have spoken and written a form of what is today modern Greek. Called rumea in Turkish, it carried traces of the remnants of the old Anatolian languages. In eastern Anatolia, a large part of the population consisted of Gregorian Armenians, Monophysite Jacobites. Further south, in the region of Mardin, were the Suriyanis, Syriac-speaking Chrisitians.” […] “A further dimension of the ethnic mix of medieval Turkey was the Kurdish population in Anatolia. Kurds are known to have lived in the region which was known as Kurdistan, a geographical term in early Islamic sources for an area stretching across parts of Iran, Iraq and Anatolia. The vast majority of them had converted to Islam long before, at the time of the Arab conquest, and a section of them were Yazidi.” […] “Apart from the Turkomans and Kurds, the rural population was also made up of the nomadic Mongol tribes who invaded Anatolia in 1246. These tribes were shamanists. After a certain time they began slowly to accept Islam as a result of the missionary activity of the Turkoman babas.” […] “There was no great difference, therefore, between the towns of Anatolia and those classic Islamic cities of the Middle East or even Central Asia in terms of either their physical structure or their social and economic organisation. Their general characteristics rapidly emerged: just like Cairo, Damascus, Aleppo, Baghdad, Beyhak, Tabriz, Merv, Balkh, Bukhara and Samarkand, they became cosmopolitan centres with a bureaucracy and were composed of different ethnic religious, social and professional groups. Here Christian, Jewish and Muslim populations lived together.” […] “If we look at the information in Ibn Battuta, we find that in some towns in the fourteenth century Greeks, other towns Armenians, outnumbered the Turks. There were a large number of Jews in trade centres such as Konya, Antalya, Sinop and Sivas.” […] “However, insufficient the sources maybe, it is still possible to see traces of Shi’i-Ismaili influences among the semi-nomadic Turks, regardless of the Sunni policy of the political administration which officially protected it, influences which were not considered by researchers until the recent past […] with the development of Bektasi and Kizilbas movements in the fifteenth century among those Turkoman and Kurdish tribes in Anatolia who are known to have been the object of probably strong Ismailism in the fourteenth century, the Anatolian branch of heterodoxy appeared. Despite the existence of such influences we have no proof of the diffusion of either Ismaili Shi’ism or Imamiye (Twelver Shi’ism) in Anatolia in this period. Thus, no Shi’i groups belonging directly to either of these branches existed in Anatolia, even in the following centuries.” §REF§ (Ocak 2010, 361-364, 369, 375-376, 387) Ocak, Ahmet Yasar. 2010. ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life 1071-1453’. In Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 1: Byzantium to Turkey 1071-1453. Edited by Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/US5KKCXU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: US5KKCXU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At the time of the Turk’s arrival the people of the region, called Rum in the Muslim sources, were composed of the original local population which had intermixed with the Greek population of the towns of western Anatolia and had become Christian. This population without doubt constituted the most significant element. An important percentage of the population was made up of villages who had settled in the countryside and were engaged in agriculture. They must certainly have spoken and written a form of what is today modern Greek. Called rumea in Turkish, it carried traces of the remnants of the old Anatolian languages. In eastern Anatolia, a large part of the population consisted of Gregorian Armenians, Monophysite Jacobites. Further south, in the region of Mardin, were the Suriyanis, Syriac-speaking Chrisitians.” §REF§ (Ocak 2010, 361) Ocak, Ahmet Yasar. 2010. ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life 1071-1453’. In Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 1: Byzantium to Turkey 1071-1453. Edited by Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/US5KKCXU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: US5KKCXU </b></a> §REF§ “Within the Ottoman Empire large numbers of Christians, alongside Jews practiced their religion as zimmis, protected taxpayers of ‘scriptural infidels.’ The Turks new of the old division of Near Eastern Christianity into Greek Orthodox, Jacobite (Monophysite) and Nestorians Christians. Their Christian subjects were organized in three religious communities, millet: The Greek Orthodox, by far the great majority; the Armenian, Monophysite, millet which included besides Armenians all subjects of the Sultan not otherwise classified, and the Jews. Catholicism was the most foreign of them all; in the 15th century it was the religion of all the Franks, the enemies of Islam. When the millets were formed, almost its only adherents within the Empire were foreigners such as the Genoese citizens of Galata.” §REF§ (Flemming 2017, 240) Flemming, Barbara. 2017. Essays on Turkish Literature and History. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZKQDPDMG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZKQDPDMG </b></a> §REF§ “Among the empire’s non-Muslims, the vast majority were Orthodox Christians. In Greater Syria and Iraq, there also were some Jacobites and Nestorians, while Egypt contained a sizable Coptic minority.” […] “In today’s Lebanon, the Maronites formed a close relationship with Venice and the papacy: already in the twelfth century they had recognised the pope as the head of their church but retained their own rites and performed religious services in Arabic.” §REF§ (Faroqhi 2013, 369-371) Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2013. ‘Ottoman Population’. In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 2: The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453-1603. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AH3EFTX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9AH3EFTX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 125, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Baha’i Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Before the intervention in 1860, Mount Lebanon (also known as the Mountain) was an autonomous administrative Ottoman entity distinct from the province of Syria, comprising nearly 200,000 inhabitants. Numerically preponderant, the Christian Maronites inhabited the northern and central regions of Mount Lebanon. They were also numerous in the mainly Druze area of Jezzin and similarly formed an enclave in the town of Dair al-Qamar. The Druze were a splinter group of Sh’ia Islam, sufficiently far removed from Muslim doctrine to be sometimes considered a different religion. The Greek Orthodox community, also known as Orthodox Melkite, was the second largest in Lebanon and settled mainly in the Kura district, the coastal region south of Tripoli. The Greek Catholics (Uniates), also known as Catholic Melkites, were concentrated in Zahleh. The Sunni, Shi’a, Metwalis Muslims, and Bedouins were scattered in various locations both north and south.” §REF§ (Rodogno 2012, 91) Rodogno, Davide. 2012. Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in The Ottoman Empire 1815-1914. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ICHJHS7B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ICHJHS7B </b></a> §REF§ “Not only the Armenians, but also other Christian minorities had such complaints. For example, the Assyrian Patriarch, Mar Rouil Shimon, wrote an official letter to the Russian tsar, dated May 14, 1868: ‘…We are a poor nation; my people have not enough grain to provide themselves with bread…The Kurds have forcibly taken many of our Churches and convents, the constantly abduct our virgins, brides, and women, forcing them to turn Moslems…The Turks are worse, they do not protect us, demand military taxes, poll taxes, also the Kurds take our money for they consider us as ‘Zirr Kurr’ (slaves – being Christians…) …Now, such being our condition, we beseech your mightiness, for the sake of Jesus, His Baptism, and cross. Either to free us from such a state or to procure us a remedy…” §REF§ (Shirinian 2017, 24-25) Shirinian, George. 2017. ‘The Background to the Late Ottoman Genocides.’ In Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks 1913-1923. Edited by George N. Shirnian. Oxford: Berghahn. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PHUNFGK9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PHUNFGK9 </b></a> §REF§ “Suleyman Husnu Pasa, to who we have already referred, had very interesting views on the subject. From political exile in Iraq he was to ben an extremely detailed memorandum, dated 7 April 1892, relating to measures to be undertaken by the state to ensure the integration of heterodox and heretical elements into the official belief. After offering a rather sophisticated breakdown of the complex ethnic mosaic of Iraq which included Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Chaldeans, Nestorians, Armenians and Jews distributed across various sects and sub-sects of Islam and Christianity he commented: ‘As can be seen from the above elements belonging to the official faith and language of the state are in a clear minority whereas the majority falls to the hordes of the opposition.’” […] “Although it is understandable that the Sunni Ottoman caliphate should be wary of Qur’ans produced by Shi’i hands, the same interdict applied to Qur’ans emanating from Sunni Kazan, and even the seat of high Islam, the al-Azhar medrese in Egypt: ‘The importation of Qur’ans…coming from Egypt is likewise forbidden according to long established practice.’” […] “The Yazidi Kurds had inhabited the mountainous regions of eastern Anatolia and upper Mesopotamia from time immemorial. Their religion, attracting some attention in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as ‘devil worship’, with its obvious exoticism, held great appeal from travellers to the Orient.” […] “A group of unorthodox people who had always drawn the ire of the Ottoman ruling class were the Kizilbas, or the ‘Red Heads’, so described for their traditional head covering. Known as a problematic branch of the Shi’i faith, these elements could not fail to attract the attention of the Hamidian centre at a time when emphasis on orthodoxy was so pronounced. On 4 January 1890, the Ministry of Education was instructed to send preachers and ilm-i hal to the Kizilbas of the vilayet of Sivas.” […] “Particularly after the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, the Protestant missions felt that they way was open for the conversion of Muslims to Christianity.” §REF§ (Deringil 2011, 49-53, 69, 82, 113) Deringil, Selim. 2011. The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876-1909. London: I.B. Tauris. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CC7SHACJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CC7SHACJ </b></a> §REF§ “In response to those articles, on 1 March 1922, Abdullah Cevdet published his article ‘Mezheb-I Bahaullan – Din – i – Umem’ (The doctrine of Baha’u’llah, a world religion) in no. 144 of Ictihad. The religious authorities and the Turkish press quickly responded, accusing him of attacking the prophet Mohammad and Islam, and praising the Baha’i religion. Consequently, Cevdet was sentenced to two years in prison, although he never served his sentence.” §REF§ (Alkan 1995:1) Alkan, Necati. 2005. ‘The Eternal Enemy of Islam’: Abdullah Cevdet and the Baha’i Religion.’ Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University London. Vol. 68:1. Pp. 1-20. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEEX8M5H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GEEX8M5H </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 132, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Cult of Al-Muqanna", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although our understanding of the spread of Islam among the Turks in this period is very limited, over the eleventh and twelfth centuries the Islamic world was becoming ever more Muslim: not just pagan Turks, but also Christians and Jews were in increasing numbers embracing the faith. At the same time, Islam itself was changing, both outwardly and inwardly. The minaret, that quintessential symbol of Islam, became increasingly common throughout the Seljuk lands, spreading from Iran to Syria and witnessing a ‘florescence… unrivalled anywhere else in the medieval Islamic world’. Its classic pencil-thin form is characteristically Seljuk. The same process of institutionalisation affected other aspects of Islam, with the spread of madrasa and the emergence of its Shi’ite relative, the hawza, the seminary system based in the Iraqi cities of Najaf and al-Hilla. Developments in Sufism also left their imprint on the built landscape. As Sufism became ever more mainstream as it was reconciled with theology, and increasingly institutionalised, some Sufi disciples started to live temporarily or permanently in specific buildings aside for their use, variously called Khanqah, ribat or zawiya, which would often also sever as the burial place for holy men (awliya, sing. wali). Meanwhile, the Sevener Shi’ite Nizari Ismailis developed their own theology, ideology and state in their remote mountain hideouts within the very confines of the Seljuk Empire.” […] “In the days of the [Ghaznavid sultans] Mahmud and Mas’ud and Tughril and Alp Arslan, no Zoroastrian or Jew or Rafidi [Twelver Shi’ite] would have dared to appear in a public place or present himself before a Turk. Those who administered the affairs of Turks were all professional civil servants from Khurasan, who followed the orthodox Hanafi or Shafi’i sects. The heretics of Iraq were never admitted to their presence or allowed to work as secretaries and tax collectors.” […] “Apart from Muslims, the Seljuk domains contained Christians, Jews, some dwindling numbers of Zoroastrians and, in a few areas, small numbers of related ancient Iranian faiths, such as the neo-Mazadkite Khuramdiniyya and the followers of Muqanna. The fate of Zoroastrians in the period is almost entirely unknown, beyond the presumption that their homes were I acute decline, especially from the eleventh century.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 248-249, 258, 273) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§<br>“Apart from Muslims, the Seljuk domains contained Christians, Jews, some dwindling numbers of Zoroastrians and, in a few areas, small numbers of related ancient Iranian faiths, such as the neo-Mazadkite Khuramdiniyya and the followers of Muqanna. The fate of Zoroastrians in the period is almost entirely unknown, beyond the presumption that their homes were I acute decline, especially from the eleventh century.” […] The following quote suggests that Jews made up either a sizable minority or a very small minority depending on what part of the empire they were in. Further note that the quote below is from a twelfth century Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela and numbers are prone to exaggerate. “Baghdad had 40,000 Jews who ‘dwell in security, prosperity and honour under the great Caliph.’ At their head was the hereditary Exilarch (known in Arabic as the Ra’s al-Jalut), vested by the Caliph with authority over all Jews in the east, from Yemen to China […] Like the Exilarch, the Baghdadi Jews are described as rich, respected and learned, and the community had twenty-eight Synagogues. Benjamin also mentions large communities of Jews in other towns in Iran and Irag: 10,000 in Hilla; 7,000 in Kuta; 3,000 in al-Anbar; 7,000 in Susa in Khuzistan; and 30,000 in Hamadhan, home to the tomb of Esther, a traditional Jewish place of pilgrimage. The head of the Iranian Jews subject to the Exilarch was based in Isfahan, Rabbi Shar Shalom, and Isfahan and Shiraz also are alleged to have had large Jewish populations of 15,000 and 10,000, respectively. Further east, the numbers become quite incredible, with 80,000 Jews said to reside in Ghazna and another 50,000 in Samarqand.” […] “Another Jewish traveller, Rabbi Petahya of Regensburgh, travelled through some of the same lands a few years after Benjamin, and he records only 1,000 Jews in Baghdad – a much more credible figure. It seems likely that, as in Egypt, Iraqi and Iranian Jews made up perhaps under 1 percent of the population, although the proportion in major cities such as Baghdad was probably much larger perhaps say 10 per cent.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 273-275) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“After the great Turkoman rebellion, the Babai revolt in 1240, which represents an important turning point in Medieval Turkish history, the Mongols moved easily in Anatolia and the period of an independent Anatolia Seljuk state came to an end. Wishing to benefit from this situation, the Vatican sent Dominican and Franciscan missionaries to Anatolia with the aim of converting the Shamanist Mongols to Christianity and imposing this religion once more on the region.” […] “At the time of the Turk’s arrival the people of the region, called Rum in the Muslim sources, were composed of the original local population which had intermixed with the Greek population of the towns of western Anatolia and had become Christian. This population without doubt constituted the most significant element. An important percentage of the population was made up of villages who had settled in the countryside and were engaged in agriculture. They must certainly have spoken and written a form of what is today modern Greek. Called rumea in Turkish, it carried traces of the remnants of the old Anatolian languages. In eastern Anatolia, a large part of the population consisted of Gregorian Armenians, Monophysite Jacobites. Further south, in the region of Mardin, were the Suriyanis, Syriac-speaking Christians.” […] “A further dimension of the ethnic mix of medieval Turkey was the Kurdish population in Anatolia. Kurds are known to have lived in the region which was known as Kurdistan, a geographical term in early Islamic sources for an area stretching across parts of Iran, Iraq and Anatolia. The vast majority of them had converted to Islam long before, at the time of the Arab conquest, and a section of them were Yazidi.” […] “There is a further question related to this subject: whether the Turks who came and settled in Anatolia in both those periods, were or, were not, Muslims. Various traces in the sources show that while the great majority of Turks had either been Muslims for some time or were recent coverts, there were also Uyghurs and Kipcaks, even if in small numbers, who had not abandoned Buddhism or Manichaeism, as well as Christianity Turks who had converted to Nestorianism while still in Central Asia. There were still Nestorian Turks in the Ottoman period.” […] “The majority of these tribes like the Turkish tribes in Central Asia whose political leaders were at the same time their shamans, were guided by individuals who for this reason had a religious-mystic character.” […] “There was no great difference, therefore, between the towns of Anatolia and those classic Islamic cities of the Middle East or even Central Asia in terms of either their physical structure or their social and economic organisation. Their general characteristic rapidly emerged: just like Cairo, Damascus, Aleppo, Baghdad, Beyhak, Tabriz, Merv, Balkh, Bukhara and Samarkand, they became cosmopolitan centres with a bureaucracy and were composed of different ethnic, religious, social and professional groups. Here Christian, Jewish and Muslim populations lived together.” §REF§ (Ocak 2010, 359-375) Ocak, Ahmet Yasar. 2010. ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life 1071-1453’. In Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 1: Byzantium to Turkey 1071-1453. Edited by Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/US5KKCXU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: US5KKCXU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the decades from the late tenth century to the middle of the eleventh, a number of developments both regarding Jews alone, and connecting (in the Byzantine mind) Jews to Armenians, further reinforced the sense of the guardians of orthodoxy that they were under attack from Jews and Judaizing Armenians. Jewish immigration from Islamic lands to Byzantine ones increased. Andrew Sharf speculates that this was a result of the tenth-century Byzantine victories in the east and the end of Byzantine persecution of Jews.”§REF§(Kolbaba 2013, no page number [ebook edition]) Kolbaba, Tia. 2013. Byzantines, Armenians, and Latins: Unleavened Bread and Heresy in the Tenth Century. In George E. Demacopoulos and Aristotle Papanikolaou (eds.) Orthodox Constructions of the West pp. 45-57. Fordham University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FTQ42HS/library§REF§\r\n\r\n\"Imperial expansion in the east [in the tenth century] also brought more Jewish communities into the empire. Also, the intolerant climate of Fatimid Egypt led many Jews (as well as Melkites) to migrate to Romanía, which was flourishing economically. The empire was now crisscrossed by denser Jewish networks that extended throughout the eastern Mediterranean and into Muslim-ruled lands. Overall, these Jewish communities appear to have flourished too.\"§REF§(Kaldellis 2019, 257) Kaldellis, A. 2019. Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium. Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/romanland/titleCreatorYear/items/43AU5MEP/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 142, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Babylonian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest that Hurrian, Palaian, Luwian, Assyrian and Babylonian religions were all significantly widespread in this polity, but it is difficult to say how widespread they were in comparison to each other. \"The pantheon in its final form evolved through a process of territorial expansion and assimilation, over time absorbing the gods of the Hattians, Palaians, and the Luwians. Eventually the expansion of the Hittite state resulted in the introduction of gods not only from other parts of Anatolia but also from Hurrian Syria and Mesopotamia.\" §REF§ (Collins 2007, 173) Collins, Billie Jean. 2007. The Hittites and their World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ9J6WHG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QJ9J6WHG </b></a> §REF§ \"Hittite religion was an amalgam of elements drawn from various cultural strata: that of the indigenous Hattic people as well as the cultures of the several groups speaking an Anatolian Indo-European language (Hittite, Palaic, or Luwian). To this mix were added influences from Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria) and from the Semitic and Hurrian populations of northern Syria.\"§REF§ (Beckman 2013, 86) Beckman, Gary. 2013. ‘Hittite Religion’. In The Cambridge History of the Religions in the Ancient World: From the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Age. Edited by Michele Renee Salzman and Marvin A. Sweeney. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sehat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/35ZH8IHU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 35ZH8IHU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 143, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Samaritanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Apart from the Farmer’s law whose date is disputed and which is anyway a compilation of material, from Justinian’s era and before, the emperors seem to have initiated very little legislation; what remains is primarily ecclesiastical in nature, for example Heraclius’ edict of 632 requiring the compulsory conversion of Jews, his Ekthesis, and Constants II’s Typos.” […] “Resistance to monenergism, began with Sophronious, who had been a monk in Palestine and later became Patriarch of Jerusalem; resistance to Monothelitism was led by Sophronius’ disciple Maximus, whose impact on the orthodox in Palestine was such that they were called Maximians by the Monothelites in Syria and Palestine. In the second half of the seventh century Dyothelite (‘orthodox’) Christians in Palestine found themselves in a new situation. Previously they had been adherents of imperial orthodoxy that had been backed up, in the last resort by force. Now they found themselves in a situation where their religious position was opposed by other Christian groups – Monophysite, Monothelite and even Nestorian- and by non-Christians like Jews, Samaritans, Manichees, and, eventually, by Muslims. They had both to defend what they believed in and to work out exactly what their faith amounted to.” §REF§ (Louth 2010, 241-243) Louth, Andrew. 2010. ‘Byzantium Transforming (600-700)’ In The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500-1492. Edited by Jonathan Shepard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P92RUTWI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P92RUTWI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 162, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tuoba Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Likely implied by \"steppe traditions\" in the next quote. \"Adopting Confucianism as the state religion was not acceptable to many nobles of the Northern Wei royal lineage, who took pride in their steppe traditions, nor was it appealing to their Chinese subjects.\"§REF§(Liu 77, 2010) Xinru Liu. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Likely confined to conquerors. \"Adopting Confucianism as the state religion was not acceptable to many nobles of the Northern Wei royal lineage, who took pride in their steppe traditions, nor was it appealing to their Chinese subjects.\"§REF§(Liu 77, 2010) Xinru Liu. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Moreover, as newcomers, Muslims and Christians lacked the landed wealth and stable position of the Buddhist and Daoist clergies.” §REF§ (Atwood 2016, 280). Atwood, Christopher P. 2016. ‘Buddhists as Natives: Changing Positions in the Religious Ecology of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.’ In The Middle Kingdom and the Dharma Wheel. Edited by Thomas Jülch. Leiden, Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88JE5FJN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88JE5FJN </b></a> §REF§ “Starting from the 13th century, Syriac Christianity became once again part of the Chinese religious landscape, especially during the Yuan dynasty. For example, in the area around the city of Beijing, the remains of the Fangshan Cross Temple (fangshan shizisi 房山 十字寺), controversially identified as a Syriac Christian temple, are an important evidence of the presence of Christianity in the imperial capital of the Yuan dynasty (consult: Tang and Zhang 2018)” §REF§ (De Caro 2021, 297-298) De Caro, Antonio. 2021. “Christian Artifacts and Images from Tang to Yuan Dynasty A Brief Account on Practicing Christianity along the Silk Roads from the 7th to the 15th Century.” Proceedings from the Sixth International conference on Chinese Studies “The Silk Road.” Bulgaria: Confucius Institute in Sofia. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D88VDGWW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D88VDGWW </b></a> §REF§ “In this time, Franciscan missionaries started also to reach China from Europe and they were stupefied by the presence of Syriac Christians. More controversially, Giovanni da Montecorvino (1247–1328) saw them directly as a rival Christian group in the region stating that “have grown so powerful in those parts that they will not allow a Christian of another ritual to have ever so small a chapel, or to publish any doctrine different from their own.” (Yule 2010, v. 1, 197). Together with religious buildings, Syriac Christians produced also daily objects. Pier Giorgio Borbone (Borbone 2019) studied the importance of a Yuan dynasty mirror coming from Inner Mongolia, which has been produced by an unknown artist. The mirror, according to Borbone, was used both in daily life but also for funerary services even though there is no direct evidence for the latter usage. The mirror, in Syriac literature, represented an important component of Christian spirituality like an object that can reflect divine reality (Brock 2009) and its usage for funerary purposes could be a plausible explanation of the presence of several mortuary mirrors in China since the 12th century.” §REF§ (De Caro 2021, 298) De Caro, Antonio. 2021. “Christian Artifacts and Images from Tang to Yuan Dynasty A Brief Account on Practicing Christianity along the Silk Roads from the 7th to the 15th Century.” Proceedings from the Sixth International conference on Chinese Studies “The Silk Road.” Bulgaria: Confucius Institute in Sofia. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D88VDGWW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D88VDGWW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The third phase of infiltration occurred during the Ming and Qing dynasties (AD 1368–1912), following Hu Dengzhou’s call for the creation of a far more organized religious educative program for those brought up under a Muslim religious mantra. This imperative need was accepted by China’s central authorities, so Muslims began to establish all levels of education in Madrasa, to train priests for their churches, which resulted in both the translation of their holy scriptures and, as a result, an even greater respect for and dissemination of Islam occurred. The fourth stage of its early development in China was marked by the Empiric licenses given to a more formalized Islamic education system being established.” §REF§ (Xu et al 2018, 24) Xu, Guobin, Yanhui Chen, and Lianhua Xu. (editors) 2018. Understanding Chinese Culture: Philosophy, Religion, Science and Technology. Singapore: Springer Singapore. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MR5XGHSC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MR5XGHSC </b></a> §REF§ “The arrival of missionaries, especially the Jesuits, in the late sixteenth century led to the introduction into China not only of their religious teachings, which did not gain much traction or become widespread in the Ming, but also of new repertoires of knowledge in fields from astronomy and cartography to painting and handicrafts.” §REF§ (Hammond 2019, 274) Hammond, Kenneth J. 2019. ‘Cultural History from the Yuan Through the Ming’ In Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History Edited by Victor Cunrui Xiong, and Kenneth J. Hammond . London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4IPN4QXF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4IPN4QXF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 133, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shamanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“For much of the period of official prohibition of Christianity (1705–1842), the number of Christians probably did not exceed 400,000; and this in a period when the population of China more than doubled. Despite their small numbers, the Christian communities exhibited a strong sense of cohesion. Outside of the centers of Beijing and Shanghai, and the traditional communities established in Guangdong, Fujian, and Shanxi, Christianity had expanded to the southwest provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan. This clandestine Church, short of clergy, developed strong community structures under lay leadership. Mirroring the social hierarchy in society at large, leader- ship in local churches was represented by the gentry, scholars, and merchants in urban areas, and by the elders of the leading clans and families in the countryside. A prominent feature in Chinese Christianity, one that also reflected social values, was the segregation of the sexes in worship and in sacramental life. The small size of the Christian community meant compromises with the larger society. Unlike in Chinese Islam, endogamy proved impossible in many Chinese Christian communities: in many villages, consanguinity and social ties rendered it impossible for Christian families to arrange church weddings for their children. In one aspect, however, Christianity inspired a strong resistance to traditional social forces: the segregation of the sexes in religious life gave rise to the formation of female sodalities in China in which pious young girls and women refused marriage in the name of religious devotion, modeling themselves after the beatae of Catholic Europe.” §REF§ (Po-chia Hsia 2017, 362) Po-chia Hsia, R. 2017. ‘Imperial China and the Christian Mission’ In A Companion to Early Modern Catholic Global Missions Edited by Ronnie Po-chia Hsia. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFJ6TW6M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFJ6TW6M </b></a> §REF§ “While mystical interpretations of Islam were likely present in China following the arrival of the religion during the Tang dynasty (618-907), the spread of institutional Sufi ṭuruq (Ar. “paths”, menhuan 門宦; Sufi religious orders) across western China was a distinctly Qing phenomenon. Islam was already well established in China by the time institutional Sufism arrived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Some Sufi movements became embroiled in political unrest that affected much of the northwest in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Brown 2019,445) Brown, Tristan G. 2019. ‘A Mountain of Saints and Sages: Muslims in the Landscape of Popular Religion in Late Imperial China.’ T'Oung Pao. Vol 105 (3-4): 437-491. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFZXH7PI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFZXH7PI </b></a> §REF§ “According to historical records of the Qing dynasty, the Qing Palace rituals were very complex, different from the Ming dynasty, the Shaman in the palace rituals played an important role. … “The thirty-sixth year of the Qianlong period (1771), it is determined to geld horses to sacrifice in spring and autumn; Shaman should kowtow.\". It is clear that Shaman was a Zansi, the assistant to the main host of the sacrifice. In the Qing dynasty, Zansi are mainly female officials, \"Kunning Palace is dedicated to the gods, the rituals are in accordance with the old system of Qingning Palace in Shengjing. The Empress should perform daily rituals. Set up a female official on behalf of her, with a salary of a third-rank official. This person will be named as Shaman, which is also commonly known as Mrs. Sama, who were called the Zansi female officials in the old \"Canon\". She should come early in the morning to Shenwu Gate, and to the Palace for God worship. When the Shaman passes away, her position can be inherited by her daughter-in-law instead of her daughter, and the mantras she recited cannot be given to other people easily”…. Although the court sacrifice borrowed the form of Confucian rituals, its core still belongs to the shamanic faith. (据清代史籍记载，清宫祭祀仪礼非常复杂，与明代不同的是，萨满在宫廷祭祀中担任重要角色。…“乾隆三十六年，定春、秋骟马致祭，萨满叩头。”。此处以萨满为赞祀，即辅助主祭之人。赞祀在清代多为女官，“坤宁宫供奉神位，皆依盛京清宁宫旧制，应由皇后每日行礼，设一女官代之，食三品俸，名曰萨满，俗讹称撒麻太太，旧《会典》谓之赞祀女官。清晨入神武门，至宫礼神。萨满身故，传媳不传女，以所诵经咒不轻授人也”。…虽然宫廷祭祀借用了儒家祭典的形式，但其内核仍然属于萨满信仰。)” “While the Palace Shamanism was standardised, the Shamanism in folk society was also witnessed with similar rituals at home. There were Shaman who specialised in rituals; they are the family Shaman. After the promulgation of the Ceremony, the family rituals of the Folk Shamanism in the capital region were generally converged with those of the palace. Yao Yuanzhi (1776-1825) wrote \"Zhu Ye Ting Miscellaneous Records\", which describes in great detail the rituals in the folk family as follows: \"Manchurian Saman Dance, the great rituals of Manchuria. Regardless of the rich and noble, the inner room must be dedicated to the gods, only a wooden plate, having no script on it ... in spring and autumn, choose a day to sacrifice, this is called Manchurian Saman Dance ... extreme respect for the gods enshrined in the order: Guanyin Bodhisattva, Guandi, God of Land … Manchurian Saman Dance, there is a group of people specialising in dancing, recitation of the benediction, named 'Samo' (also Manchurian people) .\" According to the description, \"Samo \" is the shaman for family practice, and the practice of Samo includes dance to amuse god and satirical recitation of the benediction. (在宫廷萨满走向制度化的同时，民间也形成了与宫廷祭祀趋同的家祭仪礼以及专司祭祀的萨满，即家萨满。《典礼》颁行后，京畿地区民间家祭仪式普遍趋同于宫廷。瑏瑠姚元之(1776—1825)所著《竹叶亭杂记》对民间家族祭祀中的跳神有极为详尽的描述，择其要如下:“跳神，满洲之大礼也。无论富贵士宦，其内室必供奉神牌，只一木版，无字……春秋择日致祭，谓之跳神……极尊处所奉之神，首为观世音菩萨，次为伏魔大帝，次为土地……满洲跳神，有一等人专习跳舞、讽诵祝文者，名曰’萨吗’(亦满洲人)……”从描述可知，其中所记载的“萨吗”就是家祭时的萨满，其行为有跳舞乐神和讽诵祝文等。)” §REF§(Wang, Wei 2020, No.5 ) Wang, Wei. 2020. Studies in World Religions. Beijing: University of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Seshat URL: §REF§<br>For much of the period of official prohibition of Christianity (1705–1842), the number of Christians probably did not exceed 400,000; and this in a period when the population of China more than doubled.” §REF§ (Po-chia Hsia 2017, 362) Po-chia Hsia, R. 2017. ‘Imperial China and the Christian Mission’ In A Companion to Early Modern Catholic Global Missions Edited by Ronnie Po-chia Hsia. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFJ6TW6M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFJ6TW6M </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 133, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shamanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“For much of the period of official prohibition of Christianity (1705–1842), the number of Christians probably did not exceed 400,000; and this in a period when the population of China more than doubled.” §REF§ (Po-chia Hsia 2017, 362) Po-chia Hsia, R. 2017. ‘Imperial China and the Christian Mission’ In A Companion to Early Modern Catholic Global Missions Edited by Ronnie Po-chia Hsia. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFJ6TW6M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFJ6TW6M </b></a> §REF§ “While mystical interpretations of Islam were likely present in China following the arrival of the religion during the Tang dynasty (618-907), the spread of institutional Sufi ṭuruq (Ar. “paths”, menhuan 門宦; Sufi religious orders) across western China was a distinctly Qing phenomenon. Islam was already well established in China by the time institutional Sufism arrived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Some Sufi movements became embroiled in political unrest that affected much of the northwest in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Brown 2019,445) Brown, Tristan G. 2019. ‘A Mountain of Saints and Sages: Muslims in the Landscape of Popular Religion in Late Imperial China.’ T'Oung Pao. Vol 105 (3-4): 437-491. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFZXH7PI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFZXH7PI </b></a> §REF§ “According to historical records of the Qing dynasty, the Qing Palace rituals were very complex, different from the Ming dynasty, the Shaman in the palace rituals played an important role. … “The thirty-sixth year of the Qianlong period (1771), it is determined to geld horses to sacrifice in spring and autumn; Shaman should kowtow.\". It is clear that Shaman was a Zansi, the assistant to the main host of the sacrifice. In the Qing dynasty, Zansi are mainly female officials, \"Kunning Palace is dedicated to the gods, the rituals are in accordance with the old system of Qingning Palace in Shengjing. The Empress should perform daily rituals. Set up a female official on behalf of her, with a salary of a third-rank official. This person will be named as Shaman, which is also commonly known as Mrs. Sama, who were called the Zansi female officials in the old \"Canon\". She should come early in the morning to Shenwu Gate, and to the Palace for God worship. When the Shaman passes away, her position can be inherited by her daughter-in-law instead of her daughter, and the mantras she recited cannot be given to other people easily”…. Although the court sacrifice borrowed the form of Confucian rituals, its core still belongs to the shamanic faith. (据清代史籍记载，清宫祭祀仪礼非常复杂，与明代不同的是，萨满在宫廷祭祀中担任重要角色。…“乾隆三十六年，定春、秋骟马致祭，萨满叩头。”。此处以萨满为赞祀，即辅助主祭之人。赞祀在清代多为女官，“坤宁宫供奉神位，皆依盛京清宁宫旧制，应由皇后每日行礼，设一女官代之，食三品俸，名曰萨满，俗讹称撒麻太太，旧《会典》谓之赞祀女官。清晨入神武门，至宫礼神。萨满身故，传媳不传女，以所诵经咒不轻授人也”。…虽然宫廷祭祀借用了儒家祭典的形式，但其内核仍然属于萨满信仰。)” “While the Palace Shamanism was standardised, the Shamanism in folk society was also witnessed with similar rituals at home. There were Shaman who specialised in rituals; they are the family Shaman. After the promulgation of the Ceremony, the family rituals of the Folk Shamanism in the capital region were generally converged with those of the palace. Yao Yuanzhi (1776-1825) wrote \"Zhu Ye Ting Miscellaneous Records\", which describes in great detail the rituals in the folk family as follows: \"Manchurian Saman Dance, the great rituals of Manchuria. Regardless of the rich and noble, the inner room must be dedicated to the gods, only a wooden plate, having no script on it ... in spring and autumn, choose a day to sacrifice, this is called Manchurian Saman Dance ... extreme respect for the gods enshrined in the order: Guanyin Bodhisattva, Guandi, God of Land … Manchurian Saman Dance, there is a group of people specialising in dancing, recitation of the benediction, named 'Samo' (also Manchurian people) .\" According to the description, \"Samo \" is the shaman for family practice, and the practice of Samo includes dance to amuse god and satirical recitation of the benediction. (在宫廷萨满走向制度化的同时，民间也形成了与宫廷祭祀趋同的家祭仪礼以及专司祭祀的萨满，即家萨满。《典礼》颁行后，京畿地区民间家祭仪式普遍趋同于宫廷。瑏瑠姚元之(1776—1825)所著《竹叶亭杂记》对民间家族祭祀中的跳神有极为详尽的描述，择其要如下:“跳神，满洲之大礼也。无论富贵士宦，其内室必供奉神牌，只一木版，无字……春秋择日致祭，谓之跳神……极尊处所奉之神，首为观世音菩萨，次为伏魔大帝，次为土地……满洲跳神，有一等人专习跳舞、讽诵祝文者，名曰’萨吗’(亦满洲人)……”从描述可知，其中所记载的“萨吗”就是家祭时的萨满，其行为有跳舞乐神和讽诵祝文等。)” §REF§(Wang, Wei 2020, No.5 ) Wang, Wei. 2020. Studies in World Religions. Beijing: University of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Seshat URL: §REF§<br>“For much of the period of official prohibition of Christianity (1705–1842), the number of Christians probably did not exceed 400,000; and this in a period when the population of China more than doubled.\" §REF§ (Po-chia Hsia 2017, 362) Po-chia Hsia, R. 2017. ‘Imperial China and the Christian Mission’ In A Companion to Early Modern Catholic Global Missions Edited by Ronnie Po-chia Hsia. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFJ6TW6M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFJ6TW6M </b></a> §REF§ “While mystical interpretations of Islam were likely present in China following the arrival of the religion during the Tang dynasty (618-907), the spread of institutional Sufi ṭuruq (Ar. “paths”, menhuan 門宦; Sufi religious orders) across western China was a distinctly Qing phenomenon. Islam was already well established in China by the time institutional Sufism arrived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Some Sufi movements became embroiled in political unrest that affected much of the northwest in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Brown 2019,445) Brown, Tristan G. 2019. ‘A Mountain of Saints and Sages: Muslims in the Landscape of Popular Religion in Late Imperial China.’ T'Oung Pao. Vol 105 (3-4): 437-491. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFZXH7PI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFZXH7PI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 111, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Manichaeism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Manichaeism was founded by Mani in Sassanid Persia. It was a dualist religion that borrowed extensively from other religions such as Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. [...] However, the followers of these foreign religions were not many compared with their Buddhist counterparts. Their influence on society was rather small. Believers tended to live in designated areas in cities in their own religious communities. Their contact with local Tang subjects was limited.” §REF§ (Xiong 2019, 141) Xiong, Victor Cunrui. 2019. ‘The Tang Dynasty I (618–756)’ In Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History, Edited by Victor Cunrui Xiong and Kenneth J. Hammond. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26ZTFGDW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 26ZTFGDW </b></a> §REF§<br>" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Finally, a word should be said about foreign religions under the Chin. We know nothing about Islam or Nestorian Christianity, although these religions may have been practiced by foreigners who had come to north China. But there is evidence of the existence of a Jewish community under the Chin. In 1163 a synagogue was built in K'ai-feng, a fact recorded in a fifteenthcentury inscription. We may perhaps assume that these Jews had come from the Middle East (Persia) via the caravan routes in Central Asia, rather than by sea.\"§REF§(Franke 1994: 319) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2QG2628P\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2QG2628P </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 169, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity Manicheism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism. All in all, religious tolerance appears to have been as characteristic of the Turks as it was to become of the Mongols of the Chinggisid period.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, D. 1990. “The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire”, In D. Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), pp. 285-316. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZIGWJWB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZIGWJWB </b></a> §REF§ “Nestorianism developed its ascendancy in Asia along the Silk Road between the Vth and Xllth centuries.” §REF§ (Divitçioğlu 2006: 9) Divitçioğlu, Sencer. “Nebulous Nestorians in the Turkish Realm (VIIIth Century).” Central Asiatic Journal, vol. 50, no. 1, 2006, pp. 9–15. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/62JWZDKP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 62JWZDKP </b></a> §REF§ “During the period of the Second Qaganate, Bilge Qagan was thinking of introducing Buddhist and Taoist temples. This was vigorously opposed by Toiiuquq. Gumilëv, basing bimself on a report in Theopbylaktos Simokattes claims that Christianity, in its Nestorian form, also made some headway in the Türk state. This is by no means clear.” §REF§ (Golden 1992: 150) Golden, Peter Benjamin. 1992. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V8KXSU6Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V8KXSU6Q </b></a> §REF§<br>“Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism. All in all, religious tolerance appears to have been as characteristic of the Turks as it was to become of the Mongols of the Chinggisid period.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, D., 1990. “The establishment and dissolution of the Türk Empire”, In D. Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), pp. 285-316. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZIGWJWB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZIGWJWB </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 111, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Manichaeism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade.”§REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§ “Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, Denis (ed.), 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S8SMRSW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S8SMRSW </b></a> §REF§<br>“The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade.”§REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§ “Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, Denis (ed.), 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S8SMRSW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S8SMRSW </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It is true that overall perhaps only a small percentage of the steppe population professed Christianity, and even their knowledge of the tradition may have been fairly superficial. Still, of the world religions Christianity seems to have been initially the best represented within steppe society… whatever their depth or meaning in terms of the religious life of the steppe, we have a definite Christian presence in Inner Asia by Chinghis Khan's time…” §REF§ (Foltz, Jianyi, 1999, 46) Foltz, R., Jianyi, L. 1999. Ecumenical Mischief Under the Mongols. Central Asiatic Journal, 43(1), 42-69. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X7FRVGSJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X7FRVGSJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 173, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Khitan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Confined to Khitan population. \"Buddhism continued to be embraced by the Song's northern neighbours, in particular the Khitan (Ch. Qidan 契丹), although the latter had not completely abandoned their indigenous tribal religious beliefs.\"§REF§(Lin 2019: 24) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ARB5VD3Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ARB5VD3Q </b></a>§REF§ NB perhaps \"sizeable minority\" would be a more accurate code?" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“More astonishingly we find evidence for Christianity there too, in the statement of Marignolli that “there were a few Christians there.”. He precedes this with the words “after some harvest of souls”, which seem to imply that the Christians were his own converts.” .” §REF§ (Colless 1975,141) Colless, Brian. 1975. “Majapahit Revisited: External evidence on the geography and ethnology of East Java in the Majapahit Period”, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol, 48, No2 (228), pp.124-161. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZFWJ7BW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NZFWJ7BW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Additionally, Nestorians who had been actively proselytising since the tenth century remained. Finally, Manichaeans and Zoroastrians still existed, albeit in negligible numbers.” §REF§ (May 2016, 272-276) May, Timothy. 2016. The Mongol Empire. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RFIT98TS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RFIT98TS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Samanid amirs were devout Muslims, and except for the interlude when Nasr b. Ahmad flirted with the Isma'llls, they remained Sunnis of the Hanafl persuasion. Shafi'Is existed but not in great numbers, while Shfis, in general after Nasr b. Ahmad, kept themselves underground.\" §REF§(Frye 1975, 153) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BXXU2XZV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BXXU2XZV </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the second half of the seventh century, after conquering Iran, the Arabs advanced on Sughd. During the first few decades of the eighth century Arab garrisons were established in Bukhara and Samarkand and the local rulers submitted.” §REF§ (Marshak and Negmatov 1996: 238, 253) Marshak, B.I. and Negmatov, N.N. 1996. ‘Sogdiana.’ In History of Civilization of Central Asia. Vol. III. (Paris: UNESCO Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9U8K89BD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9U8K89BD </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 111, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Manichaeism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade.”§REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§ “Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, Denis (ed.), 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S8SMRSW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S8SMRSW </b></a> §REF§<br>“The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade.”§REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§ “Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, Denis (ed.), 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S8SMRSW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S8SMRSW </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 190, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Old Iranian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Kushans were active at a time when in their west, particularly in Syria and western Turkey, a number of new religions had been and still were being designed, and at the same time the trend went towards monotheism. Among the new deities Kybele was depicted in full glory at Ai Khanum in the 2nd century B.C. Mithra with his Phrygian cap appears in Gandhara in the first century B.C. on coinage and Sarapis and Men were known to the Kushans.” […] “Victories in Gandhara allowed Vema Takhtu to replace Sasan, the last of the Gondophares line. Sasan had designed his coinage on a standard of 9.5 grams, originally of silver, showing the usual horse man to the right and a standing Zeus on the reverse. Exactly this type was continued in Gandhara after Vema Takhtu had taken over. But there is one formal change. The Godopharan tamgha was replaced by the three-pronged tamgha of Vema Takhtu, added to by a Kharosthi letter vi, already known from the ‘Mars’ editions. The legend changed, but for us the most important element come in the form of a pot-of-plenty, Sanskrit purnaghata, which now finds its place on the ground in front of Zeus. A pot-of-plenty already was a symbol for the buiders of Sanchi in most of its three leaves it has not exact counterpart in Iran or the West. It is a genuine Indian symbol, and once on the coin of a Kushan it must be addressing the Gandharan population. Following the inherent meaning of the purnaghata the new coins seem to suggest that political changes will be slight and to the advantage of all. The main deity is Zeus, and this is being part of Indo-Greek symbol language. But the addition of the purnaghata shows that Vema wants to be accepted as a conqueror with a recognized concern for the local population.” […] “This leads us back to Kaniska and his Rabatak inscription. There the author in the service of Kaniska lists a number of deities which conferred kingship on his master. The deities have Iranian names, and there is a series ending with Mithra, with a superscript saying ‘ and this means Mahasena, this means Visakha […] The last two words oteia oudoa (no) begin the following sentence, and oudoa reaches up to the right end of the stone. The first three words reproduced here are the end of the previous sentence and refer to the Iranian deities called Srosard, Narasa and Mihir, the latter being Mithra the sun.” […] “Because of the almost exclusive ‘Siva’ on his reverse sides [coins] Vasudeva was liable to be called ‘stern saivite’. In contrast, the personal name Vasudeva itself suggests that whoever is responsible for it thought that the King Vasudeva should be protected by one of the Pancaviras, the one with the wheel as trademark.” §REF§ (Falk 2019:1-9; 37; 40) Falk, Harry. 2019. ‘Kushan Religion and Politics.’ Bulletin of the Asia Institute. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4HJ4V4A5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4HJ4V4A5 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 194, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "shaminism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In addition, there were a variety of local cultes including a Sogdian influenced Bacchic cult, a cult centring around the fertility goddess Anahit and the Turkic heaven cult […] Manichaeism, which had traditionally sought shelter in Transoxiana during periods of persecution beginning in Sassanid times, also had its representatives here […] Buddhism here was deeply mixed with shamanism or at least appeared as such to Muslim observers […] Judaism also appears to have been relatively widespread in Eastern Iranian areas where its adherents are reported to have outnumbered the Christians.” §REF§ (Golden 2008: 344-345) Golden, Peter B. 2008. ‘The Karakhanids and Early Islam.’ In The Cambridge History of Inner Asia. Edited by Denis Sinor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AJ3JPUFR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AJ3JPUFR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“As well as being considered religiously undesirable, visiting Ottoman Muslims were increasingly perceived as constituting a real political threat, since the Ottoman empire had long controlled the Dalmatian hinterland and continued its designs on Venetian possessions in the eastern Mediterranean, conquering Cyprus in 1571.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§“After the Ottomans took possession of the Dalmatian hinterland in the later 14th century, and especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the presence of Muslims in Venice became more frequent and attracted increasing attention in art and literature.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 200, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "blank", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“After the Ottomans took possession of the Dalmatian hinterland in the later 14th century, and especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the presence of Muslims in Venice became more frequent and attracted increasing attention in art and literature.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§<br>“After the Ottomans took possession of the Dalmatian hinterland in the later 14th century, and especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the presence of Muslims in Venice became more frequent and attracted increasing attention in art and literature.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Chishti and Suhrawardi formed the two orders of the Sufis during the Sultanate period in India. Suhrawardis were most prominent in the Punjab and Sind. The Chishtis were at Delhi, parts of the Punjab, parts of modern UP and also spread to Bengal, Bihar, Malwa Gugarat and Rajasthan. They later spread to the Deccan. The different Sufi orders had cordial relations with each other and often visited the areas of other orders. This was perhaps due to the fact that the Sufi tradition clearly demarcated the territories to each sain of the order in general.” §REF§ (Ray, 2019) Ray, Aniruddha. 2019. The Sultanate of Delhi (1206 – 1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Milton Park: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2S5I44XU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2S5I44XU </b></a> §REF§ “In 1221 Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki came to Delhi and was welcomed by Iltutmish. By then many scholars, religious persons and princes from Central and West Asia had come to Delhi due to Mongol attacks and it had become known as the centre of Islam in the East. Kaki established Delhi as the main order of the Chishti Sufis. Since he used to hold musical evenings the ulemas in order to drive him out of Delhi brough the charge of heresy against him. But Iltutmish dismissed it as he wanted to use Kaki to counter the influence of the ulemas. §REF§ (Ray, 2019) Ray, Aniruddha. 2019. The Sultanate of Delhi (1206 – 1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Milton Park: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2S5I44XU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2S5I44XU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." } ] }