Widespread Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Widespread Religions.
GET /api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 1205, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sm_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Sultan’s authority, and importance of the Ottoman Empire in the life of its Jewish subjects, were perceived in the seventeenth century as an incontrovertible fact […] The duty of loyalty and obedience was accepted unquestioningly by the Jews, both because it was key to their survival and because, throughout the period in question, obedience to the state and its rulers was closely bound up with obedience to the community’s economic elite.” §REF§ (Rozen 2008, 259) Rozen, Minna. 2008. ‘The Ottoman Jews’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZ6KNCP9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZ6KNCP9 </b></a> §REF§<br>“In Salonika, for example, where Jews formed the largest religious group, a Jew could live his entire life without having to exchange more than a few sentences in a language other than Judaeo-Spanish […] The Istanbul Jew, on the other hand, had a different attitude towards the ambient society. Since Jews formed a tiny minority of the capital’s enormous population, and since the city’s economy revolved to a large extent around the royal court, the Jewish community there was far more enmeshed with the ambient Muslim society than other places in the empire […] Jews who lived in the provincial towns of the empire were also forces to relate more to Gentile society. As a very small percentage of the population in medium and small towns, Jews were forced into constant contact with the ambient society, and this left its mark.” §REF§ (Rozen 2008, 260-261) Rozen, Minna. 2008. ‘The Ottoman Jews’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZ6KNCP9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZ6KNCP9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 104, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Armenian Apostolic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At the time of the Turk’s arrival the people of the region, called Rum in the Muslim sources, were composed of the original local population which had intermixed with the Greek population of the towns of western Anatolia and had become Christian. This population without doubt constituted the most significant element. An important percentage of the population was made up of villages who had settled in the countryside and were engaged in agriculture. They must certainly have spoken and written a form of what is today modern Greek. Called rumea in Turkish, it carried traces of the remnants of the old Anatolian languages. In eastern Anatolia, a large part of the population consisted of Gregorian Armenians, Monophysite Jacobites. Further south, in the region of Mardin, were the Suriyanis, Syriac-speaking Chrisitians.” […] “The non-Muslims, either in large or small numbers according to the towns (Greeks, Armenians, and lesser numbers of Jews and European traders), formed a further unchanging population in some Anatolian towns such as Izmir, Konya, Bursa, Sivas, and Kayseri in the twelfth to fifteenth centuries.” […] “If we look at the information in Ibn Battuta, we find that in some towns in the fourteenth century Greeks, other towns Armenians, outnumbered the Turks. There were a large number of Jews in trade centres such as Konya, Antalya, Sinop and Sivas.” §REF§ (Ocak 2010, 361, 376) Ocak, Ahmet Yasar. 2010. ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life 1071-1453’. In Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 1: Byzantium to Turkey 1071-1453. Edited by Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/US5KKCXU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: US5KKCXU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote refers to the following period, but it seems reasonable to infer a similarly-sized Jewish community before then as well, though an expert should confirm. “Bringing together all these figures [early modern Jewish population statistics in the Ottoman Empire], one reaches a total of approximately 150,000 Jews in the Ottoman Empire as a whole at its height in the sixteenth century, approximately three percent of its population, compared to only 75,000 Jews in Poland and Lithuania at the same time.” […]“There were, first of all, those who had remained under Roman and then Byzantine rule, the Greek-speaking Jews, called Romaniotes or Griegos, who continued to use Greek as their secular language […]In the eastern provinces that had been under the Islamic Caliphates there were the Arabized (Musta’rab) Jew, who spoke Arabic and were heirs of the great Islamic civilizations of the Umayyads of Damascus and the Abbasids of Baghdad. They therefore disdained both the Romaniotes and the European Jews, though they themselves were divided, between the true ‘easterners,’ called Mizrahiyyim in Iraq, and ‘westerners,’ or Ma’raviyyim, of Aleppo, Damascus and Cairo[…] Entering the Ottoman Empire in flight from Christian persecution in Europe were the Ashkenazi Jews from Western, Central and Northern Europe […]Finally there the Sephardic (Sepharad, of ‘Spanish’) Jews from Spain and Portugal as well as from the lands in which they had taken refugee following the great expulsion in the fifteenth century, in particular Italy and North Africa […]” §REF§ (Shaw 1991, 40-45) Shaw, Stanford J. 1991. The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5B6Z4CPG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5B6Z4CPG </b></a> §REF§<br>The following quote refers to the following period, but it seems reasonable to infer a similarly-sized Jewish community before then as well, though an expert should confirm. “Bringing together all these figures [early modern Jewish population statistics in the Ottoman Empire], one reaches a total of approximately 150,000 Jews in the Ottoman Empire as a whole at its height in the sixteenth century, approximately three percent of its population, compared to only 75,000 Jews in Poland and Lithuania at the same time.” §REF§ (Shaw 1991, 40) Shaw, Stanford J. 1991. The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5B6Z4CPG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5B6Z4CPG </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sm_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Among Jews, there were differences among Sephardic, Mizrahi and Karaite Jews, and later among immigrant Ashkenazis.” §REF§ (Sharkey 2017, 117) Sharkey, Heather J. 2017. A History of Muslims, Christians and Jews in the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X3ZG767E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X3ZG767E </b></a> §REF§ “Ottoman Jewry was now divided into eight rabbinical districts outside Istanbul, at Busura, Baghdad, Edirne, Izmir, Salonica, Cairo, Alexandria and Jerusalem, for each of which had Chief Rabbis also were subsequently appointed along with general, secular and religious committees, all with powers, responsibilities and duties similar to those of the counterparts in Istanbul […] Additional chief rabbinical districts were created later in the nineteenth century at Sofia, Sarajevo, Damascus, Janina, Musul, Trablusgrab (Tripoli of Libya) Beirut and Aleppo.” §REF§ (Shaw 1991, 168) Shaw, Stanford J. 1991. The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K4USXKDJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: K4USXKDJ </b></a> §REF§<br>“In Salonika, for example, where Jews formed the largest religious group, a Jew could live his entire life without having to exchange more than a few sentences in a language other than Judaeo-Spanish […] The Istanbul Jew, on the other hand, had a different attitude towards the ambient society. Since Jews formed a tiny minority of the capital’s enormous population, and since the city’s economy revolved to a large extent around the royal court, the Jewish community there was far more enmeshed with the ambient Muslim society than other places in the empire […] Jews who lived in the provincial towns of the empire were also forces to relate more to Gentile society. As a very small percentage of the population in medium and small towns, Jews were forced into constant contact with the ambient society, and this left its mark.” §REF§ (Rozen 2008, 260-261) Rozen, Minna. 2008. ‘The Ottoman Jews’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZ6KNCP9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZ6KNCP9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although our understanding of the spread of Islam among the Turks in this period is very limited, over the eleventh and twelfth centuries the Islamic world was becoming ever more Muslim: not just pagan Turks, but also Christians and Jews were in increasing numbers embracing the faith. At the same time, Islam itself was changing, both outwardly and inwardly. The minaret, that quintessential symbol of Islam, became increasingly common throughout the Seljuk lands, spreading from Iran to Syria and witnessing a ‘florescence… unrivalled anywhere else in the medieval Islamic world’. Its classic pencil-thin form is characteristically Seljuk. The same process of institutionalisation affected other aspects of Islam, with the spread of madrasa and the emergence of its Shi’ite relative, the hawza, the seminary system based in the Iraqi cities of Najaf and al-Hilla. Developments in Sufism also left their imprint on the built landscape. As Sufism became ever more mainstream as it was reconciled with theology, and increasingly institutionalised, some Sufi disciples started to live temporarily or permanently in specific buildings aside for their use, variously called Khanqah, ribat or zawiya, which would often also sever as the burial place for holy men (awliya, sing. wali). Meanwhile, the Sevener Shi’ite Nizari Ismailis developed their own theology, ideology and state in their remote mountain hideouts within the very confines of the Seljuk Empire.” […] “Christianity was widespread in Syria, Iraq, and Central Asia, even if declining numbers. Three varieties existed, distinguished from one another by their varying interpretations of Christ’s divine and human nature, the Melkites, Jacobites and Nestorians. The latter, also known as the ‘Church of the East,’ was the predominant denomination, and had made considerable headway in converting the Turkic Steppe peoples.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 248-249, 281) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§<br>“In plenty of individual areas within the Seljuk domains dhimmis probably formed a majority. Although nowhere do we have statistics for confessional allegiances in this period, Christians were a substantial element in the populations of Syria (especially the north), the Jazira and Iraq.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 273) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 129, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Luwian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest that Hurrian, Palaian, Luwian, Assyrian and Babylonian religions were all significantly widespread in this polity, but it is difficult to say how widespread they were in comparison to each other. \"The pantheon in its final form evolved through a process of territorial expansion and assimilation, over time absorbing the gods of the Hattians, Palaians, and the Luwians. Eventually the expansion of the Hittite state resulted in the introduction of gods not only from other parts of Anatolia but also from Hurrian Syria and Mesopotamia.\" §REF§ (Collins 2007, 173) Collins, Billie Jean. 2007. The Hittites and their World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ9J6WHG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QJ9J6WHG </b></a> §REF§ \"Hittite religion was an amalgam of elements drawn from various cultural strata: that of the indigenous Hattic people as well as the cultures of the several groups speaking an Anatolian Indo-European language (Hittite, Palaic, or Luwian). To this mix were added influences from Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria) and from the Semitic and Hurrian populations of northern Syria.\"§REF§ (Beckman 2013, 86) Beckman, Gary. 2013. ‘Hittite Religion’. In The Cambridge History of the Religions in the Ancient World: From the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Age. Edited by Michele Renee Salzman and Marvin A. Sweeney. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sehat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/35ZH8IHU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 35ZH8IHU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Han period is important in religious history because during that time Confucianism became a state orthodoxy (some would say, the state religion), Taoism became an institutional religion, and Buddhism was introduced into the country. Han China represents an epoch when all under Heaven was unified under one emperor ruling by Heaven's mandate with the help of Confucian orthodoxy.” §REF§ (Ching, Julia 1993, 153-154) Ching, Julia. 1993. Chinese Religions. London: Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPXC7H29\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPXC7H29 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"During the Eastern Han (25–220), Confucianism had become the guiding philosophy of both governance and social life. But as political infighting, peasant rebellions, and warlordism tore apart the Han Empire, many intellectuals lost confidence in Confucianism and looked to other systems of meaning for guidance and solace. To make sense of their chaotic, dangerous, and evanescent world, some turned to xuanxue (Dark Learning), or to Buddhism, or to organized Daoism. Based on these changes, Western scholars have concluded that, at the end of the Eastern Han, Confucianism was passé and its influence was in steep decline. [...] Nevertheless, recent Chinese and Japanese scholarship has established that, in the crucial areas of practical existence, such as government, ritual, family life, and law, Confucianism provided a wealth of guidance and support.\"§REF§(Knapp 2019: 483) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W49RBN2Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W49RBN2Z </b></a>§REF§<br>\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Adopting Confucianism as the state religion was not acceptable to many nobles of the Northern Wei royal lineage, who took pride in their steppe traditions, nor was it appealing to their Chinese subjects.\"§REF§(Liu 77, 2010) Xinru Liu. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“As already noted, the Mongol government had long shown more respect to Buddhist teachings and monks than to Confucian teachings and scholars (it had closed down the civil service examination system and revived it only in a muted form in 1313–1315) and to Daoist teachings and priests (the famous 1258 court debate between the two religions’ representatives had resulted, it was widely held, in a Buddhist victory)”. §REF§ (Wang 2016, 205) Wang, Jinping. 2016. ‘Clergy, Kinship, And Clout In Yuan Dynasty Shani’. International Journal of Asian Studies. Vol 13: 2. Pp 197–228. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q63B6JAV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q63B6JAV </b></a> §REF§<br>\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Of key importance is the imperial examination (keju 科举) system of the Ming Dynasty, which promoted the influence of Neo-Confucianism in all aspects of social life with an unprecedented depth and breadth. Since Buddhism and Daoism were already in decline, they had no choice but to attempt to ride the coattails of Confucianism in order to survive. Within Buddhism and Daoism themselves, the tendency towards a syncretic unification of the Three Teachings (sanjiao 三教 [i.e. Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism]) was very strong. All of these trends influenced the situation of philosophy in the Ming Dynasty, giving it a distinct quality different from that of earlier periods. The mainstream academic thought of the Ming Dynasty was Neo-Confucianism (lixue 理学 [lit. Learning of Principle]). A distinctive quality of Ming Dynasty Neo-Confucianism was the fading of interest in theories of principle (li 理) and qi 气 (material force), and the rise of theories of mind (xin 心) and inherent nature (xing 性) to become the central focus of thought. An important reason for this is that with the efforts of promotion of great Confucians in the Song and Yuan dynasties, Neo-Confucianism had been thoroughly developed, and increasingly became a doctrine concerned with value, such that exploring the ultimate reality of the myriad things had already become a question of empirical demonstration, and thus gradually fell into a place of secondary importance in the view of many people.” §REF§ (Zhang 2021, v) Zhang, Xuezhi. 2021. History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty. Singapore: Springer Singapore. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G3VVATGD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G3VVATGD </b></a> §REF§<br>‘\"“During the Ming Dynasty, the majority of rulers held a belief in Daoism, and favored Daoist and Fangshi practitioners. This was primarily manifested through the widespread observance of fasting and ritual ceremonies, a fervent belief in the efficacy of Daoist practices, and the appointment of Daoist priests to official positions … Moreover, Daoism during this period had become secularized and popularized, and thus was more aligned with the contemporary worldview. Practices such as praying for clear skies, treating illness and alleviating disaster, seeking blessings for offspring, and maintaining physical health in preparation for death were matters that confronted the commom people in their daily lives. These problems could be resolved through the application of Daoist practices such as divination and exorcism, all of which were documented in many of the texts compiled in Daozang … It is evident from this that Daoism flourished more in the common populace than Buddhism during the Ming Dynasty, due to the rulers' preference for Daoism and Daoist practices, as well as the religion's own characteristics. Additionally, an analysis of the kinds of offerings made by commoners reveals that they were most likely to dedicate them to Daoist deities, indicating that Daoism held a significant influence over the common people.(明代大部分的统治者都崇信道教，宠信道士、方士。这主要表现在广设斋醮，对方术的笃信及任用道士三方面……当时的道教已具有世俗化及民间化的特点，更符合当时人们的思想观念。祈晴求雨、去病消灾、邀福求子、养生送死等都是平民百姓日常生活中所面对的问题，而这些问题却能应用道教的方术（符咒禁忌、相卜降乱等）得以解决。这在《道藏》辑人的许多经书中均有相关的记载……我们得知道教在明代统治者的崇信及其本身的特点下，其在民间的发展确实比佛教兴盛。此外，据百姓订烧的供器中尤以供奉道教神灵为多的情况分析，道教在民间具有较大的影响力。)” §REF§ Ye, Gengjin. (2004). Religious Beliefs and Consciousness in Ming Dynasty Folk Porcelain Offerings. Southern Cultural Relics, No. 05.§REF§ “As pointed out by Lu Xun and other scholars, after the mid-Ming period, rulers revered Daoism and the Daoist clergy flourished with official support. This led to a high degree of identification with Daoism among both the literati and the common people, making it the primary form of general belief in society. (正如鲁迅和其他研究者都已经指出的那样，明中期以后统治者奉道隆重，道教教团在官方的扶持下颇为兴盛，从士人到庶民对其形成了高度的认同，使道教成为社会一般信仰的主要承载形式。)” §REF§ Zhao, Yi. (2013). Commercialized Compilation of Ming Dynasty Popular Literature and Secular Religious Life: A Study of Deng Zhimo's “Immortals and Demon Novels\". Journal of Anhui University: Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition, 2013(01). §REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The first century ce, moreover, saw the first references to Buddhist belief in China. The doctrine appears to have come by sea route from India through Southeast Asia, and the earliest mention is in an edict of Emperor Ming in 65 ce to his cousin King (Prince) of Chu Liu Ying 楚王劉英 in the valley of the Huai, north of the mouth of the Yangzi—he appears to make specific reference to monks (sangmen 桑門; śramaṇa) and to the community of the faithful. By the second century, Buddhism was established at the capital, benefiting greatly from the work of An Shigao 安世高, a man from Parthia, who published renderings of Buddhist texts. They were not very accurate, but they did allow some concepts and teachings of the religion to enter Chinese discourse, and they gained influence among students and minor officials.” §REF§ (Crespigny 2019, 49) Crespigny, Rafe de. 2019. ‘The Eastern Han.’ In Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History, Edited by Victor Cunrui Xiong and Kenneth J. Hammond. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IDDDFHVZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IDDDFHVZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"As the last of the Three Teachings, Confucianism played an important religious role in society, particularly in ancestral worship, Heaven worship, and a host of ritual sacrifices. However, having neither priesthood nor church organization, Confucianism by Sui times had been essentially an ethical tradition. Furthermore, policy decisions of the Sui court regarding Confucianism were primarily concerned with its secular aspects. So despite its involvement in contention for supremacy as a thought system against Buddhism and Daoism, Confucianism was by no means a major religious force under the Sui.\" §REF§(Xiong 2006: 143) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C73MNB3S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C73MNB3S </b></a>§REF§<br>\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The last of the triad of Tang religions was Confucianism, identifiable with imperial and local civic cults and with evolving readings of the state canon. Developments in these fields, together with the philosophical revival of Confucianism in the ninth century, help account for the rise of Neo-Confucianism to intellectual dominance in late imperial China.” §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 225) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. London: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P9RSHZKQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P9RSHZKQ </b></a> §REF§ “Notwithstanding this temporary relegation to a back seat in governance, the practice of Confucianism was still nourished and reinforced for a future time, by a “wash” of divergent ideas generated from the complexity of schools competing against it, such that it came back into favor in the very creative Tang (AD 618–907) and Song (AD 960–1279) dynasties. §REF§ (Xu et al 2018, 34) Xu, Guobin, Yanhui Chen, and Lianhua Xu. (editors) 2018. Understanding Chinese Culture: Philosophy, Religion, Science and Technology. Singapore: Springer Singapore. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MR5XGHSC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MR5XGHSC </b></a> §REF§<br>\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“NB the folloAll in all, religious tolerance appears to have been as characteristic of the Turks as it was to become of the Mongols of the Chinggisid period.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, D. 1990. “The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire”, In D. Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), pp. 285-316. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZIGWJWB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZIGWJWB </b></a> §REF§<br>“Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism. All in all, religious tolerance appears to have been as characteristic of the Turks as it was to become of the Mongols of the Chinggisid period.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, D. 1990. “The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire”, In D. Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), pp. 285-316. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZIGWJWB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZIGWJWB </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It is clear that, besides Buddhism and Zoroastrianism (reported by Theophylactus Simocattes), Nestorian Christianity was also known to and practiced by at least some Türks. […] Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 306, 314-315) Sinor, Denis (ed.), 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S8SMRSW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S8SMRSW </b></a> §REF§ “Nestorianism developed its ascendancy in Asia along the Silk Road between the Vth and XII th centuries.” §REF§ (Divitçioğlu 2006: 9) Divitçioğlu, Sencer. “Nebulous Nestorians in the Turkish Realm (VIIIth Century).” Central Asiatic Journal, vol. 50, no. 1, 2006, pp. 9–15. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/62JWZDKP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 62JWZDKP </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"However, in A.D. 918 Taizu decreed that both Buddhist and Daoist monasteries and a Confucian temple be built in the Supreme Capital, and personally made his pilgrimage to the latter while ordering the empress and heir apparent to offer sacrifices to the Buddhist and Daoist monasteries respectively.\" §REF§(Lin 2011: 237) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N778IHRD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N778IHRD </b></a>§REF§<br>\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"§REF§(Chau 2013: 146-148) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BETEPDVT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Firstly, there were Muslim people , (3) all of whom were merchants who had migrated from every foreign kingdom in the West; doubtless they were Indians, Persians and Arabs.” §REF§ (Colless 1975,139) Colless, Brian. 1975. “Majapahit Revisited: External evidence on the geography and ethnology of East Java in the Majapahit Period”, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol, 48, No2 (228), pp.124-161. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZFWJ7BW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NZFWJ7BW </b></a>§REF§ “Ma Huan is the only one to mention Muslims; he tells us that there were foreign traders and also Chinese who followed Islam. In this latter respect Ma Huan gives support to one of Pigeaud's suppositions (IV, 493), that Chinese influence must have been important in those times, in the field of economy (cash currency) and art (ceramics), though there is no extant evidence of Chinese graves and temples. He thinks that in the turbulent times of the rise of Islam in the fifteenth century the Chinese who were settled in East Java either emigrated or turned Muslim. […] There are typical Javanese symbols in the ornamentation of the gravestones which support this idea. And in view of the proximity of this burial ground to the palace it is not unlikely that some of these Muslims belonged to the royal family or to the circles of courtiers. It is therefore certain that there were Muslims in the city of Majapahit in the fourteenth century.” §REF§ (Colless 1975,140-141) Colless, Brian. 1975. “Majapahit Revisited: External evidence on the geography and ethnology of East Java in the Majapahit Period”, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol, 48, No2 (228), pp.124-161. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZFWJ7BW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NZFWJ7BW </b></a>§REF§<br>“Islam remained a minority faith restricted to the north coast ports until the sixteenth century, during which it spread into the interior of Java and was at least nominally adopted by most of the agrarian population.” §REF§ (Miksic and Goh 2017, 451) John N. Miksic and Geok Yian Goh, 2017. Ancient Southeast Asia. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CT7WZZNV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CT7WZZNV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 788, "name": "et_ethiopian_k_3", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom III", "start_year": 1769, "end_year": 1854 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following refers to the preceding period, but, based on the literature consulted, there does not seem to be a reason to believe that Muslims were no longer present in this polity at this time. \"Economic specialization, density of population, and ethnic diversity were all important characteristics of the new Ethiopian capital. Foreigners, Muslims, Beta Israel, and representatives of numerous regional groups were all found in the city.\" §REF§(Kaplan 1992: 103) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PT9MJQBE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PT9MJQBE </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 789, "name": "et_ethiopian_k_2", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom II", "start_year": 1621, "end_year": 1768 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Economic specialization, density of population, and ethnic diversity were all important characteristics of the new Ethiopian capital. Foreigners, Muslims, Beta Israel, and representatives of numerous regional groups were all found in the city.\" §REF§(Kaplan 1992: 103) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PT9MJQBE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PT9MJQBE </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Chaghatayid Khanate consisted of Mawarannahr with a clear Muslim majority and other regions beyond the Syr Darya possessing a more diverse population. In addition to Muslims, the region had a sizeable number of Buddhists, largely due to the appearance of the Qara Khitai Empire and the Uighurs, although Buddhism entered Central Asia much earlier. Additionally, Nestorians who had been actively proselytising since the tenth century remained. Finally, Manichaeans and Zoroastrians still existed, albeit in negligible numbers.” §REF§ (May 2016, 272-276) May, Timothy. 2016. The Mongol Empire. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RFIT98TS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RFIT98TS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Samanid amirs were devout Muslims, and except for the interlude when Nasr b. Ahmad flirted with the Isma'llls, they remained Sunnis of the Hanafl persuasion. Shafi'Is existed but not in great numbers, while Shfis, in general after Nasr b. Ahmad, kept themselves underground.\" §REF§(Frye 1975, 153) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BXXU2XZV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BXXU2XZV </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Buddhism, which came to Sughd from the south at an early period, flourished according to the Sui shu and the T’ang shu. By the seventh century, however, it had almost disappeared from Sogdiana. In the eight century T’ang Buddhism spread among Sogdian emigrants, as a result of which most Sogdian Buddhist works are translations from Chinese.” […] In the second half of the seventh century, after conquering Iran, the Arabs advanced on Sughd. During the first few decades of the eighth century Arab garrisons were established in Bukhara and Samarkand and the local rulers submitted.” §REF§ (Marshak and Negmatov 1996: 238, 253) Marshak, B.I. and Negmatov, N.N. 1996. ‘Sogdiana.’ In History of Civilization of Central Asia. Vol. III. (Paris: UNESCO Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9U8K89BD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9U8K89BD </b></a> §REF§ “Buddhism does not seem to have taken root in Sogdiana, certainly not as in Bactria. But Sogdian colonists in the east did accept Buddhism and Sogdian Buddhist texts have survived from eastern Turkestan although later in date than this period.” §REF§ (Frye and Litvinsky 1994: 467) Frye, Richard N. and Litvinsky, Boris A. 1994. ‘The Northern Nomads, Sogdiana and Chorasmia.’ In J. Herrmann and E. Zurcher (eds.), History of Humanity: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. Vol. III. (Paris: UNESCO Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WW8P2A7R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WW8P2A7R </b></a> §REF§<br>“Buddhism, which came to Sughd from the south at an early period, flourished according to the Sui shu and the T’ang shu. By the seventh century, however, it had almost disappeared from Sogdiana. In the eight century T’ang Buddhism spread among Sogdian emigrants, as a result of which most Sogdian Buddhist works are translations from Chinese.” §REF§ (Marshak and Negmatov 1996: 238, 253) Marshak, B.I. and Negmatov, N.N. 1996. ‘Sogdiana.’ In History of Civilization of Central Asia. Vol. III. (Paris: UNESCO Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9U8K89BD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9U8K89BD </b></a> §REF§ “Buddhism does not seem to have taken root in Sogdiana, certainly not as in Bactria. But Sogdian colonists in the east did accept Buddhism and Sogdian Buddhist texts have survived from eastern Turkestan although later in date than this period.” §REF§ (Frye and Litvinsky 1994: 467) Frye, Richard N. and Litvinsky, Boris A. 1994. ‘The Northern Nomads, Sogdiana and Chorasmia.’ In J. Herrmann and E. Zurcher (eds.), History of Humanity: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. Vol. III. (Paris: UNESCO Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WW8P2A7R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WW8P2A7R </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It is clear that, besides Buddhism and Zoroastrianism (reported by Theophylactus Simocattes), Nestorian Christianity was also known to and practiced by at least some Türks. […] Although present, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Manicheism (mainly among Sogdians) played minor roles compared with Buddhism.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 306, 314-315) Sinor, Denis (ed.), 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S8SMRSW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S8SMRSW </b></a> §REF§ “Nestorianism developed its ascendancy in Asia along the Silk Road between the Vth and XII th centuries.” §REF§ (Divitçioğlu 2006: 9) Divitçioğlu, Sencer. “Nebulous Nestorians in the Turkish Realm (VIIIth Century).” Central Asiatic Journal, vol. 50, no. 1, 2006, pp. 9–15. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/62JWZDKP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 62JWZDKP </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The idea of the god Fire was maintained by those who won over Vasudeva. The Kushanshahs kept the unifying motif including bovide and trisula, but now the flaming hair was drawn very clear and pronounced under Peroz I or Wahran II. Strange enough, the legend speaks of him ‘who reigns in the heights (borzavand), which falls in line with the Avestan vaiius uparo.” §REF§ (Falk 2019: 42 Falk, Harry. 2019. ‘Kushan Religion and Politics.’ Bulletin of the Asia Institute. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4HJ4V4A5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4HJ4V4A5 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote seems to be taken from the time right before the Karakhanids but it is highly likely that Buddhist adherents were present in the area. “Recent archaeological investigations at the site of medieval Turaz (Talas, Aulie-Ata, modern Dzhambul), for example, indicate that its population and that of surrounding towns during this period professed Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Buddhism […] Buddhism here was deeply mixed with shamanism or at least appeared as such to Muslim observers.” §REF§ (Golden 2008: 344-345) Golden, Peter B. 2008. ‘The Karakhanids and Early Islam.’ In The Cambridge History of Inner Asia. Edited by Denis Sinor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AJ3JPUFR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AJ3JPUFR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 114, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Monophysite Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At the time of the Turk’s arrival the people of the region, called Rum in the Muslim sources, were composed of the original local population which had intermixed with the Greek population of the towns of western Anatolia and had become Christian. This population without doubt constituted the most significant element. An important percentage of the population was made up of villages who had settled in the countryside and were engaged in agriculture. They must certainly have spoken and written a form of what is today modern Greek. Called rumea in Turkish, it carried traces of the remnants of the old Anatolian languages. In eastern Anatolia, a large part of the population consisted of Gregorian Armenians, Monophysite Jacobites. Further south, in the region of Mardin, were the Suriyanis, Syriac-speaking Christians. §REF§ (Ocak 2010, 361) Ocak, Ahmet Yasar. 2010. ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life 1071-1453’. In Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 1: Byzantium to Turkey 1071-1453. Edited by Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/US5KKCXU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: US5KKCXU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "the Jews seem to have constituted between slightly more than 1 per cent and 2 per cent of the total population of the city, and may possibly have constituted the third largest readily identifiable group of foreigners in Venice, after the Greeks and the Germans.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§ “the Venetian government also chose to accommodate Crete’s Jews, a much smaller but old and wealthy community based predominantly in urban centres, particularly in the capital and main port city of Candia (modern Heraklion), which would, at times, be seen by the colonial government as an ally and buffer between Venice and the Greek Orthodox.” §REF§ (Lauer, 573) Lauer, Rena. 2017. ‘In Defence of Bigamy: Colonial Policy, Jewish Law and Gender in Venetian Crete’. Gender and History. Vol. 29. No. 3. Pp. 570-588. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FEQACWD5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FEQACWD5 </b></a>§REF§“the religio-legal environment of Crete, where the Jewish community had developed in a Byzantine milieu[:] The Jews who experienced the Venetian takeover were neither Ashkenazi nor Sephardi; rather, they identified themselves as followers of the Byzantine-Jewish Romaniote rite. Over the first centuries of Venetian rule, Jews from Ashkenaz, Iberia, Italy and many other locales settled on Crete, creating a heterogeneous Jewish community, albeit one whose leadership and ruling structure continued to see itself as part of the Romaniote tradition with a Venetian flavour.” §REF§ (Lauer, 573) Lauer, Rena. 2017. ‘In Defence of Bigamy: Colonial Policy, Jewish Law and Gender in Venetian Crete’. Gender and History. Vol. 29. No. 3. Pp. 570-588. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FEQACWD5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FEQACWD5 </b></a>§REF§<br>the Jews seem to have constituted between slightly more than 1 per cent and 2 per cent of the total population of the city, and may possibly have constituted the third largest readily identifiable group of foreigners in Venice, after the Greeks and the Germans.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§ “the Venetian government also chose to accommodate Crete’s Jews, a much smaller but old and wealthy community based predominantly in urban centres, particularly in the capital and main port city of Candia (modern Heraklion), which would, at times, be seen by the colonial government as an ally and buffer between Venice and the Greek Orthodox.” §REF§ (Lauer, 573) Lauer, Rena. 2017. ‘In Defence of Bigamy: Colonial Policy, Jewish Law and Gender in Venetian Crete’. Gender and History. Vol. 29. No. 3. Pp. 570-588. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FEQACWD5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FEQACWD5 </b></a>§REF§“Jews and Latins each made up roughly the same percentage of Candia’s demographic – about a thousand people in each community – in comparison to the much larger Greek Orthodox population […] In Crete’s social theatre, Jews were neither numerically small nor minor in terms of available evidence about them.” §REF§ (Lauer, 18-19) Lauer, Rena. 2019. Colonial Justice and the Jews of Venetian Crete. Pittsburgh: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C2HTMJ9Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C2HTMJ9Z </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 200, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "blank", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Down to the end of the 14th century, apparently only a few Jews dwelled in Venice, while others passed through the city, possibly staying temporarily. […] The size of minority groups in Venice at any given time is very hard, if not impossible, to determine, except for the Jews, whose numbers could be more accurately ascertained in official censuses because of their compulsory enforced residence in the ghetto, but even then uncertainties arise. […] a judicious examination of the extant evidence seems to point to a slow rise in population from approximately 700 in 1516 when the ghetto was established […] thus, very generally speaking, the Jews seem to have constituted between slightly more than 1 per cent and 2 per cent of the total population of the city, and may possibly have constituted the third largest readily identifiable group of foreigners in Venice, after the Greeks and the Germans.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“On the other hand, the Delhi sultans, who were Sunnis, attempted to eradicate Ismaili Shia rulers and communities that had earlier settled in northwestern areas of India.” §REF§ (Campo 2009, 189) Campo, Juan Eduardo. 2009. Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts on File Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FWNHV2PZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FWNHV2PZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the Hephthalite dominion Buddhism was predominant but there was also a religious sediment of Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Nestorian Christianity which had come with the increase of Sasanid influence.” §REF§ (Wink 2002, 110) Wink, Andre. 2002. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DC89R5ZK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DC89R5ZK </b></a>§REF§ “Various forms of Zoroastrian beliefs were widespread in Central Asia and northern and Western Afghanistan in competition with Buddhism. There were also many adherents of Hindu beliefs in Afghanistan and in Tokharistan. Lastly, Manichaeism had taken firm root and Christianity was spreading.” §REF§ (Litvinsky 1992, 147) Litvinsky, B.A. 1992. ‘The Hephthalite Empire’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 3. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7MTFU42T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7MTFU42T </b></a> §REF§ “Equally inconsistent are references to the Hephthalite’s religion. Somewhat surprising Sung Yun and Hui Sheng report that they do not believe in Buddhism, though there is ample archaeological evidence that this religion was practiced in territories under Hephthalite control. According to Liang Shu the Hephthalites worshipped Heaven and also fire- a clear reference to Zoroastrianism. There are also indications that Nestorian Christianity was widespread within the Hephthalite empire.” §REF§ (Sinor 1994, 300) Sinor, Denis. 1994. ‘The Establishment and Dissolution of the Turk Empire.’ In The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia Vol. 1. Edited by Denis Sinor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PSJVE58D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PSJVE58D </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 29, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sikhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"These sources indicate that trade between Bukhara and Multan was routed through Kabul and dominated by Shikarpuri Hindus and Lohani Afghans. For the Mughals and early Durranis Multan was important as a mint city, as a hub of the interregional trade networks linking Central and South Asia, and as a production center in its own right. [...] Shikarpur was not noted for any significant local production or mar-keting of local or imported commodities. The city was known almost strictly as a money market and banking center, and its reputation was garnered by those claiming or being ascribed the Shikarpuri identity who resided far from the city itself. [...] Elsewhere, Burnes notes the residents of Shikarpur city itself to be about 50percent Baba Nanak Sikhs and 40 percent Muslim, most of the latter group being identified as Afghans who received land grants from the early Durranis. This leaves a Hindu resident population of approxi-mately 40 percent, but their importance was proportionately much greater because members of this community comprised most of the Shikarpuris found so widely outside the city.\"<br>Sikhs and Hindus seem to have been mostly confined to the cities of Multan and Shirkarpur. \"Elsewhere, Burnes notes the residents of Shikarpur city itself to be about 50 percent Baba Nanak Sikhs and 40 percent Muslim, most of the latter group being identified as Afghans who received land grants from the early Durranis. This leaves a Hindu resident population of approximately 40 percent, but their importance was proportionately much greater because members of this community comprised most of the Shikarpuris found so widely outside the city.\" §REF§(Hanifi 2011: 43-44) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3WEZNEJJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3WEZNEJJ </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 126, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hellenistic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB it is difficult to accurately assess how widespread different religions were in this polity in relation to each other, but it is clear that there were many followers of Hellenistic Religion. \"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its development. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye's judgment, we may speak of a 'general Mazdayasnian religious predominance,' within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions.\" §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 19) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NBFIAUX8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NBFIAUX8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 225, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Crypto-Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Once the Inquisition began to function, the home, once a secure haven for conversos, could no longer fulfill that function, especially because of the presence of servants, who were potential informants. Nonetheless, the women’s domain became central to the continuation of any crypto-religion in Spain. [...] For both Jewish and Muslim conversas, as García-Arenal has emphasized, the private domain became the center for transmitting knowledge; no other schools were allowed. The contention is that the women replaced the men by offering their children an entrée to their faith from their home. [...] Since public observance and displays of faith were forbidden and would incriminate the observer as a heretic, the private domain became the only option for ritual, which also strengthened the influence of Moriscas and conversas in their environment, enhancing traditional women’s roles.\"§REF§(Levine Melammed 2010: 157-158) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V3SWUVZ3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V3SWUVZ3 </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 781, "name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal", "long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“East Pakistan represents the cultural legacy of Bengal during the Muslim rule. The Hindus and Buddhists were the earlier peoples of the province. The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§<br>“The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 780, "name": "bd_chandra_dyn", "long_name": "Chandra Dynasty", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": null, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 782, "name": "bd_twelve_bhuyans", "long_name": "Twelve Bhuyans", "start_year": 1538, "end_year": 1612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“East Pakistan represents the cultural legacy of Bengal during the Muslim rule. The Hindus and Buddhists were the earlier peoples of the province. The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§<br>“The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 589, "name": "in_sur_emp", "long_name": "Sur Empire", "start_year": 1540, "end_year": 1556 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“East Pakistan represents the cultural legacy of Bengal during the Muslim rule. The Hindus and Buddhists were the earlier peoples of the province. The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§<br>“The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 232, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Baptist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Before 1690, 90 percent of all congregations in colonial America were either Congregationalist (as in Puritan New England) or Anglican (as in Virginia). But by 1770 this was no longer true. Congregationalism and the Church of England indeed remained strong on the eve of the American Revolution. About 20 percent of all colonial congregations were Congregationalists and about 15 percent adhered to the Church of England. But by 1770 Scottish and Scots-Irish Presbyterians made up 18 percent of all colonial congregations, English and Welsh Baptists about 15 percent, Quakers, German Lutherans and German Reformed each claimed 5 to 10 percent of the colonial congregations. Non-English congregations by then accounted for at least 25 percent of all colonial congregations although they had been rare before 1690, and by 1770 no single religious body could claim more than 20 percent of all the colonial congregations. §REF§ (Butler 2007; 72) Butler, Jon. 2007. New World Faiths: Religion in Colonial America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPDI9F4I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPDI9F4I </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 778, "name": "in_east_india_co", "long_name": "British East India Company", "start_year": 1757, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The English merchants played an increasingly important role in events in the subcontinent as time went on. They encountered societies that operated in very different ways to their own and people of many faiths. These included, amongst others, Jains, Parsis, Sikhs, Jews, Muslims and Christians.” §REF§ (Carson 2012, 1) Carson, Penelope 2012. The East India Company and Religion, 1698-1858 (Woodbridge, Uk: Boydell and Brewer Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/USXTQFKH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: USXTQFKH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 409, "name": "bd_bengal_sultanate", "long_name": "Bengal Sultanate", "start_year": 1338, "end_year": 1538 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“East Pakistan represents the cultural legacy of Bengal during the Muslim rule. The Hindus and Buddhists were the earlier peoples of the province. The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§<br>“The Buddhists were small in number. The Hindus formed the bulk of the people, and throughout the Muslim rule they continued to enjoy numerical majority in the population of Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 203–204. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§" } ] }