Widespread Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Widespread Religions.
GET /api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=24
{ "count": 1205, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=25", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=23", "results": [ { "id": 1163, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"However, although the legitimacy of Daoist activities, subject to the court’s management and regulation, were recognized, in society at large, Buddhism far surpassed Daoism in popularity and influence.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26ZTFGDW\">[Xiong_Xiong_Hammond 2019, pp. 140-141]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1164, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1165, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Notwithstanding this temporary relegation to a back seat in governance, the practice of Confucianism was still nourished and reinforced for a future time, by a “wash” of divergent ideas generated from the complexity of schools competing against it, such that it came back into favor in the very creative Tang (AD 618–907) and Song (AD 960–1279) dynasties.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MR5XGHSC\">[Xu_Chen_Xu 2018, p. 34]</a> “The last of the triad of Tang religions was Confucianism, identifiable with imperial and local civic cults and with evolving readings of the state canon. Developments in these fields, together with the philosophical revival of Confucianism in the ninth century, help account for the rise of Neo-Confucianism to intellectual dominance in late imperial China.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P9RSHZKQ\">[Lewis 2009, p. 225]</a> \"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1166, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“In the Tang and Song dynasties (AD 618–1279, a timespan of some 600 years), Islamic practices were principally reserved for visiting businessmen from foreign, mainly Middle Eastern, countries who had principally gained access to China along the Silk Road.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MR5XGHSC\">[Xu_Chen_Xu 2018, p. 23]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1167, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“In the Tang and Song dynasties (AD 618–1279, a timespan of some 600 years), Islamic practices were principally reserved for visiting businessmen from foreign, mainly Middle Eastern, countries who had principally gained access to China along the Silk Road.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MR5XGHSC\">[Xu_Chen_Xu 2018, p. 23]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1168, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 111, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Manichaeism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Nestorianism was a Christian sect. Officially, it began to spread in China in 638, when Emperor Taizong gave permission to Abraham (Aluoben 阿羅本), leader of a missionary group from Sassanid Persia, to build a Persian Monastery (later renamed “Daqin Monastery”) in Chang’an. In 781, followers erected the Monument to the Spread of Nestorianism in China (Daqin jingjiao liuxing Zhongguo bei 大秦景教流行中國碑). The inscription is in Chinese and Syriac. The Chinese part gives an account of how Nestorianism arrived and spread in China. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Sassanid Persia. Many Sogdians who came to China were believers. [...] Manichaeism was founded by Mani in Sassanid Persia. It was a dualist religion that borrowed extensively from other religions such as Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. [...] However, the followers of these foreign religions were not many compared with their Buddhist counterparts. Their influence on society was rather small. Believers tended to live in designated areas in cities in their own religious communities. Their contact with local Tang subjects was limited.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26ZTFGDW\">[Xiong_Xiong_Hammond 2019, p. 141]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1169, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Nestorianism was a Christian sect. Officially, it began to spread in China in 638, when Emperor Taizong gave permission to Abraham (Aluoben 阿羅本), leader of a missionary group from Sassanid Persia, to build a Persian Monastery (later renamed “Daqin Monastery”) in Chang’an. In 781, followers erected the Monument to the Spread of Nestorianism in China (Daqin jingjiao liuxing Zhongguo bei 大秦景教流行中國碑). The inscription is in Chinese and Syriac. The Chinese part gives an account of how Nestorianism arrived and spread in China. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Sassanid Persia. Many Sogdians who came to China were believers. [...] Manichaeism was founded by Mani in Sassanid Persia. It was a dualist religion that borrowed extensively from other religions such as Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. [...] However, the followers of these foreign religions were not many compared with their Buddhist counterparts. Their influence on society was rather small. Believers tended to live in designated areas in cities in their own religious communities. Their contact with local Tang subjects was limited.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26ZTFGDW\">[Xiong_Xiong_Hammond 2019, p. 141]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1170, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Nestorianism was a Christian sect. Officially, it began to spread in China in 638, when Emperor Taizong gave permission to Abraham (Aluoben 阿羅本), leader of a missionary group from Sassanid Persia, to build a Persian Monastery (later renamed “Daqin Monastery”) in Chang’an. In 781, followers erected the Monument to the Spread of Nestorianism in China (Daqin jingjiao liuxing Zhongguo bei 大秦景教流行中國碑). The inscription is in Chinese and Syriac. The Chinese part gives an account of how Nestorianism arrived and spread in China. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Sassanid Persia. Many Sogdians who came to China were believers. [...] Manichaeism was founded by Mani in Sassanid Persia. It was a dualist religion that borrowed extensively from other religions such as Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. [...] However, the followers of these foreign religions were not many compared with their Buddhist counterparts. Their influence on society was rather small. Believers tended to live in designated areas in cities in their own religious communities. Their contact with local Tang subjects was limited.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26ZTFGDW\">[Xiong_Xiong_Hammond 2019, p. 141]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1171, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Nestorianism was a Christian sect. Officially, it began to spread in China in 638, when Emperor Taizong gave permission to Abraham (Aluoben 阿羅本), leader of a missionary group from Sassanid Persia, to build a Persian Monastery (later renamed “Daqin Monastery”) in Chang’an. In 781, followers erected the Monument to the Spread of Nestorianism in China (Daqin jingjiao liuxing Zhongguo bei 大秦景教流行中國碑). The inscription is in Chinese and Syriac. The Chinese part gives an account of how Nestorianism arrived and spread in China. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Sassanid Persia. Many Sogdians who came to China were believers. [...] Manichaeism was founded by Mani in Sassanid Persia. It was a dualist religion that borrowed extensively from other religions such as Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. [...] However, the followers of these foreign religions were not many compared with their Buddhist counterparts. Their influence on society was rather small. Believers tended to live in designated areas in cities in their own religious communities. Their contact with local Tang subjects was limited.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26ZTFGDW\">[Xiong_Xiong_Hammond 2019, p. 141]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1172, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Nestorianism was a Christian sect. Officially, it began to spread in China in 638, when Emperor Taizong gave permission to Abraham (Aluoben 阿羅本), leader of a missionary group from Sassanid Persia, to build a Persian Monastery (later renamed “Daqin Monastery”) in Chang’an. In 781, followers erected the Monument to the Spread of Nestorianism in China (Daqin jingjiao liuxing Zhongguo bei 大秦景教流行中國碑). The inscription is in Chinese and Syriac. The Chinese part gives an account of how Nestorianism arrived and spread in China. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Sassanid Persia. Many Sogdians who came to China were believers. [...] Manichaeism was founded by Mani in Sassanid Persia. It was a dualist religion that borrowed extensively from other religions such as Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. [...] However, the followers of these foreign religions were not many compared with their Buddhist counterparts. Their influence on society was rather small. Believers tended to live in designated areas in cities in their own religious communities. Their contact with local Tang subjects was limited.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26ZTFGDW\">[Xiong_Xiong_Hammond 2019, p. 141]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1173, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 263, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most widespread religion(s): Greek religion. Greek religion was not an organized religion but a set of religious traditions shared by Greek-speaking peoples. It belongs to the “immanentist” type (Strathern 2019) and was an open system with significant local variation resulting from the blend of cultures in the Mediterranean basin (Larson 2013: 136). The Cretan version of Greek religion is distinctive because of the preceding Minoan Bronze Age culture, the Dorian ethnicity of most Cretan Greeks (Moorey 2019: 55-56).\" (Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Harvey Whitehouse, February 2023)", "description": "" }, { "id": 1174, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 291, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tiwanaku Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"If we are talking only about Cusco, then no other religion is necessary. If we are talking about the Andes, then Tiwanaku, late Nasca, and late Moche/Early Chimú would figure into other regions.\" (R. Alan Covey, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, June 2023)", "description": "" }, { "id": 1175, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 293, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Moche Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"If we are talking only about Cusco, then no other religion is necessary. If we are talking about the Andes, then Tiwanaku, late Nasca, and late Moche/Early Chimú would figure into other regions.\" (R. Alan Covey, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, June 2023)", "description": "" }, { "id": 1176, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 292, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nasca Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"If we are talking only about Cusco, then no other religion is necessary. If we are talking about the Andes, then Tiwanaku, late Nasca, and late Moche/Early Chimú would figure into other regions.\" (R. Alan Covey, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, June 2023)", "description": "" }, { "id": 1177, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 126, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hellenistic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB it is difficult to accurately assess how widespread different religions were in this polity in relation to each other, but it is clear that there were many followers of Hellenistic Religion. \"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its development. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye's judgment, we may speak of a 'general Mazdayasnian religious predominance,' within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NBFIAUX8\">[Neusner 2008, p. 19]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1178, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB it is difficult to accurately assess how widespread different religions were in this polity in relation to each other. \"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its development. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye's judgment, we may speak of a 'general Mazdayasnian religious predominance,' within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NBFIAUX8\">[Neusner 2008, p. 19]</a> “The Arsacids themselves were probably Zoroastrians, but the role of Zoroastrianism is difficult to ascertain. It is commonly assumed that the Avesta was widely spread all over Iran and beyond during this time. The first collection of all written or oral testimonies of the Avesta and Zand was probably ordered by Vologases I(Hintze 1998 ). The immediate impact of this in religious life is nevertheless rarely traceable, since temples for Iranian gods like the supposed Anahita temple at Bard - e Neshanda (Vanden Berghe and Schippmann 1985 : 20), are rare.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEH35732\">[Hauser 2012, p. 1016]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1179, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 142, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Babylonian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB it is difficult to accurately assess how widespread different religions were in this polity in relation to each other. \"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its development. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye's judgment, we may speak of a 'general Mazdayasnian religious predominance,' within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NBFIAUX8\">[Neusner 2008, p. 19]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1180, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB it is difficult to accurately assess how widespread different religions were in this polity in relation to each other. \"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its development. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye's judgment, we may speak of a 'general Mazdayasnian religious predominance,' within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NBFIAUX8\">[Neusner 2008, p. 19]</a> “In the Arsacid period monotheistic religions steadily gained ground. The Babylonian Talmud attests to the existence of a large, flourishing Jewish community in the region with an exilarch living at Ctesiphon (Oppenheimer 1983 ).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEH35732\">[Hauser 2012, p. 1016]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1181, "polity": { "id": 643, "name": "et_showa_sultanate", "long_name": "Shoa Sultanate", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1285 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1182, "polity": { "id": 643, "name": "et_showa_sultanate", "long_name": "Shoa Sultanate", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1285 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"One clear marker of the Islamization of this region is its urbanization, which in the Ethiopian context of that time always denotes Islamized societies. But there are other markers as well. The precise use of the Islamic calendar and of Arabic script and language are strong evidence of the presence of an Islamic scholarly elite. This literate elite is represented by the faqīh Ibrāhīm b. al-Ḥasan, “ qāḍī al-quḍā (lit. “cadi of the cadis”) of Šawah” whose death occurred in 1255. The title “cadi of the cadis” refers to the judge at the head of the judiciary of a state or of a city, and therefore presupposes a sophisticated judicial hierarchy. Finally, the mention of the capture of Baghdad by the “Tatars” (the Mongols) in February 1258 (although the author places it in 1255) indicates that this space was in contact with the rest of the Islamic world and that the echo of this important event had reached the heart of the Ethiopian highlands.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TA84VGHX\">[Chekroun_Hirsch_Kelly 2020, pp. 94-95]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1183, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB Difficult to establish how widespread each of the empire's major religions were, in relation to each other. The ordering provided here is therefore somewhat arbitrary. \"The Sasanian state promoted Zoroastrianism, but by the fifth century it realized that Christianity had become a universal religion and in order not to be the religion identified with the Eastern Roman Empire, a Persian Christian church would be beneficial. Although most people today identify Christianity with the Eastern Roman Empire in late antiquity, there were many Christian groups who were not in or part of that tradition. The Christians along with the Jews created a pluralistic society which was headed by their religious leader, but ultimately answerable to the king and the state. As long as order was kept, all religious communities prospered, but disorder brought persecution. While the Sasanians began as a Zoroastrian dynasty, in time, they became the mediator and arbiter of justice and order among the Jews, Christians, Mandaeans, Buddhists, Hindus, Zoroastrians and other religious communities in the empire. The universality of the Sasanian Empire, unlike the Eastern Roman Empire, was not translated into a Christian order but rather an order with Zoroastrianism at its core, but also with a universal multi-ethnic and multi-religious aspect.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MUKJ4G5K\">[Daryaee 2009, p. 97]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1184, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB Difficult to establish how widespread each of the empire's major religions were, in relation to each other. The ordering provided here is therefore somewhat arbitrary. \"The Sasanian state promoted Zoroastrianism, but by the fifth century it realized that Christianity had become a universal religion and in order not to be the religion identified with the Eastern Roman Empire, a Persian Christian church would be beneficial. Although most people today identify Christianity with the Eastern Roman Empire in late antiquity, there were many Christian groups who were not in or part of that tradition. The Christians along with the Jews created a pluralistic society which was headed by their religious leader, but ultimately answerable to the king and the state. As long as order was kept, all religious communities prospered, but disorder brought persecution. While the Sasanians began as a Zoroastrian dynasty, in time, they became the mediator and arbiter of justice and order among the Jews, Christians, Mandaeans, Buddhists, Hindus, Zoroastrians and other religious communities in the empire. The universality of the Sasanian Empire, unlike the Eastern Roman Empire, was not translated into a Christian order but rather an order with Zoroastrianism at its core, but also with a universal multi-ethnic and multi-religious aspect.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MUKJ4G5K\">[Daryaee 2009, p. 97]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1185, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB Difficult to establish how widespread each of the empire's major religions were, in relation to each other. The ordering provided here is therefore somewhat arbitrary. \"The Sasanian state promoted Zoroastrianism, but by the fifth century it realized that Christianity had become a universal religion and in order not to be the religion identified with the Eastern Roman Empire, a Persian Christian church would be beneficial. Although most people today identify Christianity with the Eastern Roman Empire in late antiquity, there were many Christian groups who were not in or part of that tradition. The Christians along with the Jews created a pluralistic society which was headed by their religious leader, but ultimately answerable to the king and the state. As long as order was kept, all religious communities prospered, but disorder brought persecution. While the Sasanians began as a Zoroastrian dynasty, in time, they became the mediator and arbiter of justice and order among the Jews, Christians, Mandaeans, Buddhists, Hindus, Zoroastrians and other religious communities in the empire. The universality of the Sasanian Empire, unlike the Eastern Roman Empire, was not translated into a Christian order but rather an order with Zoroastrianism at its core, but also with a universal multi-ethnic and multi-religious aspect.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MUKJ4G5K\">[Daryaee 2009, p. 97]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1186, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 265, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mandeanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB Difficult to establish how widespread each of the empire's major religions were, in relation to each other. The ordering provided here is therefore somewhat arbitrary. \"The Sasanian state promoted Zoroastrianism, but by the fifth century it realized that Christianity had become a universal religion and in order not to be the religion identified with the Eastern Roman Empire, a Persian Christian church would be beneficial. Although most people today identify Christianity with the Eastern Roman Empire in late antiquity, there were many Christian groups who were not in or part of that tradition. The Christians along with the Jews created a pluralistic society which was headed by their religious leader, but ultimately answerable to the king and the state. As long as order was kept, all religious communities prospered, but disorder brought persecution. While the Sasanians began as a Zoroastrian dynasty, in time, they became the mediator and arbiter of justice and order among the Jews, Christians, Mandaeans, Buddhists, Hindus, Zoroastrians and other religious communities in the empire. The universality of the Sasanian Empire, unlike the Eastern Roman Empire, was not translated into a Christian order but rather an order with Zoroastrianism at its core, but also with a universal multi-ethnic and multi-religious aspect.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MUKJ4G5K\">[Daryaee 2009, p. 97]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1187, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB Difficult to establish how widespread each of the empire's major religions were, in relation to each other. The ordering provided here is therefore somewhat arbitrary. \"The Sasanian state promoted Zoroastrianism, but by the fifth century it realized that Christianity had become a universal religion and in order not to be the religion identified with the Eastern Roman Empire, a Persian Christian church would be beneficial. Although most people today identify Christianity with the Eastern Roman Empire in late antiquity, there were many Christian groups who were not in or part of that tradition. The Christians along with the Jews created a pluralistic society which was headed by their religious leader, but ultimately answerable to the king and the state. As long as order was kept, all religious communities prospered, but disorder brought persecution. While the Sasanians began as a Zoroastrian dynasty, in time, they became the mediator and arbiter of justice and order among the Jews, Christians, Mandaeans, Buddhists, Hindus, Zoroastrians and other religious communities in the empire. The universality of the Sasanian Empire, unlike the Eastern Roman Empire, was not translated into a Christian order but rather an order with Zoroastrianism at its core, but also with a universal multi-ethnic and multi-religious aspect.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MUKJ4G5K\">[Daryaee 2009, p. 97]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1188, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "NB Difficult to establish how widespread each of the empire's major religions were, in relation to each other. The ordering provided here is therefore somewhat arbitrary. \"The Sasanian state promoted Zoroastrianism, but by the fifth century it realized that Christianity had become a universal religion and in order not to be the religion identified with the Eastern Roman Empire, a Persian Christian church would be beneficial. Although most people today identify Christianity with the Eastern Roman Empire in late antiquity, there were many Christian groups who were not in or part of that tradition. The Christians along with the Jews created a pluralistic society which was headed by their religious leader, but ultimately answerable to the king and the state. As long as order was kept, all religious communities prospered, but disorder brought persecution. While the Sasanians began as a Zoroastrian dynasty, in time, they became the mediator and arbiter of justice and order among the Jews, Christians, Mandaeans, Buddhists, Hindus, Zoroastrians and other religious communities in the empire. The universality of the Sasanian Empire, unlike the Eastern Roman Empire, was not translated into a Christian order but rather an order with Zoroastrianism at its core, but also with a universal multi-ethnic and multi-religious aspect.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MUKJ4G5K\">[Daryaee 2009, p. 97]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1189, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“In the Tang and Song dynasties (AD 618–1279, a timespan of some 600 years), Islamic practices were principally reserved for visiting businessmen from foreign, mainly Middle Eastern, countries who had principally gained access to China along the Silk Road.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MR5XGHSC\">[Xu_Chen_Xu 2018, p. 23]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1190, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 158, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Chinese Popular Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1191, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a> \"[...] there were ten to twenty times more Buddhist monks than Daoist priests in the country through most of the Song. Thus, Zhenzong’s initiative to establish Heavenly felicity Daoist temples in every prefecture had a much greater impact than if he had called for the establishment of Heavenly felicity Buddhist monasteries for the simple reason that most prefectures had more Buddhist temples than Daoist temples. Similarly, when Huizong asked for both Buddhist and Daoist Heavenly calm temples in each prefecture (with instructions not to convert Heavenly felicity ones), most prefectures could easily rename a Buddhist temple but in many cases had to establish a new Daoist temple, adding to the geographic penetration of Daoism.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C8VEXAD8\">[Ebrey_Marsone_Lagerwey 2014, pp. 136-137]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1192, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a> \"[...] there were ten to twenty times more Buddhist monks than Daoist priests in the country through most of the Song. Thus, Zhenzong’s initiative to establish Heavenly felicity Daoist temples in every prefecture had a much greater impact than if he had called for the establishment of Heavenly felicity Buddhist monasteries for the simple reason that most prefectures had more Buddhist temples than Daoist temples. Similarly, when Huizong asked for both Buddhist and Daoist Heavenly calm temples in each prefecture (with instructions not to convert Heavenly felicity ones), most prefectures could easily rename a Buddhist temple but in many cases had to establish a new Daoist temple, adding to the geographic penetration of Daoism.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C8VEXAD8\">[Ebrey_Marsone_Lagerwey 2014, pp. 136-137]</a> The spread of Daoist practices among the people at large extended to the psycho- physical exercise of inner alchemy (neidan), which attained mass popularity in the Song. Daoist masters such as Chen Pu (fl. 1078) entered market towns and scoured the countryside for worthy disciples. The people also flocked to pilgrimage centers made famous by Daoist illuminaries. The monks on Mount Wudang in Sichuan Province were the key element in transforming the mountain into the main pilgrim- age center for the worship of the god Zhenwu (the warrior god who remains to this day perhaps the most widely venerated god in the Chinese pantheon) in the fourteenth century. It was against such a background—growing competition in a marketplace of religious ritual, creative marketing by ritual specialists, and the growing role of Daoist monasticism in society—that the worship of Zhenwu became institutionalized in Daoism and in the Chinese religious landscape. Daoism, both institutionally and in the public sphere, thus gained its popular status as China’s higher religion, shaped by developments in the Song.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P525KJ33\">[Chao_Nadeau 2012, p. 119]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1193, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\"1 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1194, "polity": { "id": 546, "name": "cn_five_dyn", "long_name": "Five Dynasties Period", "start_year": 906, "end_year": 970 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 158, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Chinese Popular Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1195, "polity": { "id": 546, "name": "cn_five_dyn", "long_name": "Five Dynasties Period", "start_year": 906, "end_year": 970 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1196, "polity": { "id": 546, "name": "cn_five_dyn", "long_name": "Five Dynasties Period", "start_year": 906, "end_year": 970 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1197, "polity": { "id": 546, "name": "cn_five_dyn", "long_name": "Five Dynasties Period", "start_year": 906, "end_year": 970 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1198, "polity": { "id": 406, "name": "in_kalachuri_emp", "long_name": "Kalachuris of Kalyani", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1184 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "No descriptions.", "description": "" }, { "id": 1199, "polity": { "id": 406, "name": "in_kalachuri_emp", "long_name": "Kalachuris of Kalyani", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1184 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "No descriptions.", "description": "" }, { "id": 1200, "polity": { "id": 406, "name": "in_kalachuri_emp", "long_name": "Kalachuris of Kalyani", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1184 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1201, "polity": { "id": 406, "name": "in_kalachuri_emp", "long_name": "Kalachuris of Kalyani", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1184 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1202, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 294, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Songhai Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Islam had, during the sixteenth century, gained ground in the urban centres of the Songhay empire no doubt; indeed, it had been a factor of urban life and an element of the royal religious cult for the preceding five centuries. The peasants and fisherfolk of the villages and hamlets seem to have remained little influenced; Islam could hardly have seemed relevant to such people of the soil and the water, whose cultural cycle inevitably revolves around seasonal change and natural fertility. If anything, by the end of the sixteenth century there appears to have been a hardening of lines between Islam and the Songhay indigenous religious system, exemplified in the isolation of the Dendi region which became the centre of political resistance to the Moroccans and which held most tenaciously to its own cults. All this, in spite of the encouragement given to Islam by some of the Askias, particularly the first, Al-Hajj Muhammad Ture, and the sixth, Dawud.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4BMBC2JJ\">[Hunwick_Lewis 1966, pp. 313-314]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1203, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Islam had, during the sixteenth century, gained ground in the urban centres of the Songhay empire no doubt; indeed, it had been a factor of urban life and an element of the royal religious cult for the preceding five centuries. The peasants and fisherfolk of the villages and hamlets seem to have remained little influenced; Islam could hardly have seemed relevant to such people of the soil and the water, whose cultural cycle inevitably revolves around seasonal change and natural fertility.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4BMBC2JJ\">[Hunwick_Lewis 1966, p. 313]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1204, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1205, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1206, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1207, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "a_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 110, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Syriac Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Regarding Iraq as a whole, Muslims still formed the minority in the Early ʿAbbāsid period. By the 900s, this might have changed and Muslims were in the majority, as assumed by John Tolan. Focusing on Baghdād alone, this pro- cess might have been quicker, because of the influx of a Muslim elite, Muslim soldiers and Muslim residents. Disregarding the Pre-ʿAbbāsid Christian settlements and monasteries in the urban landscape of the city, with the building of Madīnat al-Salām and the neighborhoods for al-Manṣūr’s son Muḥammad (i.e. the later Caliph al-Mahdī) on the eastern shore, Baghdād supposedly became a city with a Muslim majority already in the second half of the 8th century. However, how demographical figures of Christians in the city developed until the 14th century is not known.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIR7G559\">[Morony_Scheiner_Toral 2022, p. 711]</a> “Whether under Sasanian kings, ʿAbbāsid caliphs or Muslim rulers, internal conflicts and factionalism within the three major Christian communities in Iraq – the East Syrians, West Syrians and Melkites – led to government involvement and intervention in their affairs.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIR7G559\">[Morony_Scheiner_Toral 2022, p. 726]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1208, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "a_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 118, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Catholic Melkites", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Whether under Sasanian kings, ʿAbbāsid caliphs or Muslim rulers, internal conflicts and factionalism within the three major Christian communities in Iraq – the East Syrians, West Syrians and Melkites – led to government involvement and intervention in their affairs.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIR7G559\">[Morony_Scheiner_Toral 2022, p. 726]</a> “Regarding Iraq as a whole, Muslims still formed the minority in the Early ʿAbbāsid period. By the 900s, this might have changed and Muslims were in the majority, as assumed by John Tolan. Focusing on Baghdād alone, this pro- cess might have been quicker, because of the influx of a Muslim elite, Muslim soldiers and Muslim residents. Disregarding the Pre-ʿAbbāsid Christian settlements and monasteries in the urban landscape of the city, with the building of Madīnat al-Salām and the neighborhoods for al-Manṣūr’s son Muḥammad (i.e. the later Caliph al-Mahdī) on the eastern shore, Baghdād supposedly became a city with a Muslim majority already in the second half of the 8th century. However, how demographical figures of Christians in the city developed until the 14th century is not known.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIR7G559\">[Morony_Scheiner_Toral 2022, p. 711]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1209, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "a_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“By the 12th century the Jewish settlement in Baghdād had increased and spread greatly, such that Benjamin of Tudela in 1171 speaks of a number of Jewish synagogues that are “either in the city itself or in al-Karkh on the other side of the Tigris; for the river divides the metropolis into two parts”. At the beginning of the 13th century Judah al-Ḥarīzī also visited Baghdād and describes the Jews of Baghdād and al-Karkh, separately.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FUF9IMR\">[Stampfer_Scheiner_Toral 2022, p. 736]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 1210, "polity": { "id": 677, "name": "se_sine_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sine", "start_year": 1350, "end_year": 1887 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "According to expert Douglas Thomas, \"Depsite it’s late relatively late arrival (1848), I would describe Roman Catholicism as the 3rd most widespread religion in Sine.\" Pers. Comm. 2024. Thomas.", "description": "" }, { "id": 1211, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": null, "comment": "There were Vietnamese and Chinese residents, and a considerable amount of mixed Chinese-locals, especially in urban areas. A different type of Buddhism and Taoism was likely practiced, and different forms of ancestor reverance and other related cultural practices that overlap into belief systems… Kuan Yin (Guanyin; goddess of mercy) fairly prevalent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 1212, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 135, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Pagan Cult Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "Regarding the second most widespread religion, Professor Jorg Rupke states: \"We see venerators of Dionysos being persecuted in 186 BCE (2nd place, substantial minority); Etruscans now start to be present as religious experts of their own sort (3rd place, small minority, mostly elite); Jews seem to have come after Maccabees and the treaty of c. 160 BCE (4th, tiny minority).\"", "description": "" } ] }