Widespread Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Widespread Religions.
GET /api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=23
{ "count": 1205, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=24", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=22", "results": [ { "id": 1112, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Legal provisions dealing with Muslims would also by the end of the ninth century no longer have been theoretical. There were Muslim diplomats, merchants, and above all prisoners of war on Byzantine territory in this period. The Arabic geographer Ibn Hawqal (c. ca. 978) in this Surat al-Ard specifies that Muslim prisoners were held in the provinces (themes) of Boukellarion, Opsikion and Thrakesion, in addition to the Noumera prison in the capital. Indeed, by far the most important Muslim presence in the empire was to be found in Costantinople. The patriarch Nicholas Mysticos in a letter to the caliph al-Muqtadir, likely composed in July of 922, mentioned that Muslim prisoners even possessed an oratory for their liturgical needs. The exact date when a Constantinopolitan mosque was built is not known--the tendentious claim found in the tenth-century De administrando imperio that Leo III had allowed its construction is not credible--but it was certainly in operation by the start of the tenth century and perhaps long before that.\"§REF§(Chitwood 2020, 173-174) Chitwood, Z. 2020. Muslims and Non-Orthodox Christians in Byzantine Law until ca. 1100. In E. Cavanaugh (ed) Empire and Legal Thought: Ideas and Institutions from Antiquity to Modernity pp. 167-188. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8S7ZVM8H/library §REF§\r\n\r\n\"It was inevitable that the empire would now have Muslim subjects, but they were perhaps not as many as one might conclude from looking at a map.\"§REF§(Kaldellis, 256) Kaldellis, A. 2019. Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium. Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/romanland/titleCreatorYear/items/43AU5MEP/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 1113, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": 975, "year_to": 1072, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 110, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Syriac Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"After the reconquest of northern Syria by the soldier-emperor Nikephoros II Phokas (r. 963-969), the region became the focus of an imperially-sanctioned program of resettlement after it had been devasted by decades of warfare. [...] Settlers, both Armeniand and Syrian Orthodox, were encouraged to immigrate to this borderland. [...] In fact, the Syrian Orthodox community[...] prospered as merchant interlocutors between the Byzantine and Islamicate worlds, and its members founded numerous churches and monasteries with their newfound wealth.\"§REF§(Chitwood 2020, 179-180) Chitwood, Z. 2020. Muslims and Non-Orthodox Christians in Byzantine Law until ca. 1100. In E. Cavanaugh (ed) Empire and Legal Thought: Ideas and Institutions from Antiquity to Modernity pp. 167-188. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8S7ZVM8H/library §REF§" }, { "id": 1114, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Jews resided in the Empire's capital since the fifth century and, despite fragmentary evidence, appear to have continuously lived there up to the Fourth Crusade. At an unknown date before the eleventh century, the imperial authorities began to enforce upon them a policy of residential segregation motivated by religious considerations. About 1044 they tightened this policy by removing the Jews from their quarter, located within the city walk, to the suburb of Galata or Pera across the Golden Horn, where they still resided at the time of Benjamin of Tudela's visit. [...] One of the Western chroniclers recording the destruction of the Jewish quarter of Pera in 1203 claimed that theJews had perished in the fire of 1203. This is clearly an overstatement. […] Soon after the Latin conquest of the city, Pope Innocent III sent Benedict Cardinal of Santa Susanna as his legate to conduct talks and reach an accomodation with the Greek Church. […] Benedict was accompanied by Nicholas of Otranto, who served as his interpreter and may already have been then a monk at the Greek monastery of Casóle (Terra d'Otranto), subject to papal authority. […] Nicholas reports that in Constantinople, Thessalonike and Thebes (fol. 22v, 85v) he debated theological questions with both parts of the Jewry […].”§REF§(Jacoby 1998: 31, 37-38) Jacoby, D. 1998. The Jewish Community of Constantinople from the Komnenan to the Palaiologan Period. Vizantijskij Vremennik 55/2 (80): 31-40. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2C44JSTM/library§REF§" }, { "id": 1115, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The presence of Jews in Constantinople is first attested in the quarter of Chalkoprateia, or Copper Market, west of the church of St Sophia. According to the Patria Konstantinoupoleos, Jews lived in this quarter since the reign of Constantine I, yet from another, more reliable source, we learn that they were established there by the time of Theodosius II. Upon his return from Asia Minor in 443, the emperor discovered that during his absence from Constantinople these Jews had built a synagogue with the authorization of the city’s prefect, despite the decrees of 415, 423 and 438 prohibiting the construction of new Jewish places of worship. Their initiative implies that they were already established for some time in this urban area and had the means to erect a synagogue.\"§REF§(Jacoby 1995) Jacoby, D. 1995. The Jews of Constantinople and their demographic hinterland. In C. Mango and G. Dagron (eds.) Constantinople and its Hinterland: Papers from the Twenty-Seventh Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Oxford, April 1993. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NPRU2VW3/library§REF§" }, { "id": 1116, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 102, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Eastern Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Romans of Byzantium encompassed its Greek-speaking Orthodox population, which was the majority at all times.\" §REF§(Kaldellis 2019, 203) Kaldellis, A. 2019. Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium. Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/romanland/titleCreatorYear/items/43AU5MEP/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 1117, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Italian cities such as Venice and Genoa established out-posts there that functioned as “branch offices” of their polities back home, confined to specific locations\"§REF§(Kaldellis 2019, 225) Kaldellis, A. 2019. Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium. Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/romanland/titleCreatorYear/items/43AU5MEP/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 1118, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 350, "year_to": 537, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the mid-fourth century, the three Korean kingdoms went to war with each other. Wa allied with Paekche, against Koguryŏ, to ensure continuation of trade in iron ingots. War persisted into the fifth century, and emigrants fleeing the wars in Korea poured into Japan, bringing with them valuable metallurgic skills, hydraulic skills needed to open new irrigated fields, literacy, and their own patterns of religious life, including Buddhism.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 23) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“The tide of immigrants produced a division within Japan between clans with chieftains whose spiritual authority rested upon continental (including Buddhist) rites, and “native” groups whose leadership rested on the performance of rites for the Kami. Immigrants were associated with advanced Chinese techniques of construction, the technology for making iron tools and weapons, and the bureaucratic skills necessary to manage large estates and governmental affairs. These groups took the lead in introducing and supporting Buddhism, which provided the religious basis for their own authority. By contrast, the “native” clans were associated with agriculture and drew their religious legitimation from the performance of agriculturally based rites for the Kami. The immigrant clans increasingly built Buddhist temples and sponsored Buddhist rites there, while the native clans worshipped the Kami in shrines, built in imitation of Buddhism’s permanent structures. This division of society, combined with the determination of the Yamato rulers to remain in control of the whole, lay in the background of the late sixth-century struggle over the official adoption of Buddhist ritual into the court, to be discussed later.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 24-25) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§" }, { "id": 1119, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 55, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vodun", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "The island of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) was a colony of Late Bourbon France. “The first chant appeared in Moreau de Saint-Mery’s description de Saint-Domingue, compiled in the late 1780s. A creole lawyer, Moreau recorded what he had learned, largely second-hand it seems, about an ecstatic snake cult he called Vaudoux. The cult was long-established in the colony and associated in particular with the Aja-Fon ethnic group that the colonists called ‘Arada’. Arada blacks maintained the religion’s ‘rules and principles’. According to Moreau the word Vaudoux meant ‘omnipotent, supernatural being.’ In the Fon language the word vodu indeed refers to a supernatural being, and modern scholars have long identified the Aja-Fon culture of Togo and Dahomey (modern Benin) as the dominant influence in twentieth century voodoo. Among its several component cults, the most important remains Rada. The worship of live snakes appears to have died out in Haiti around the end of the nineteenth century, but one of voodoo’s principal deities remains the python Damballa-Wedo. Whydah, in modern Benin, was both a main port of departure for slaves transported to Saint Domingue and the home of a local and still extant, snake cult.” §REF§(Geggus 1991: 23) Geggus, David. 1991. ‘Haitian Voodoo in the Eighteenth Century: Language, Culture, Resistance’. Jahrbuch fu Geschichte Lateinamerikas. 28(1): Pp 21-51. Seshat URL: Zotero link: GJTRCZXS§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1120, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Around 12th century Saiva Siddhantha gained prominence.\"§REF§(Nyathi 2016: 47) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5GBCUTGG§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1121, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\" During this period Vaishnavism also flourished.\" §REF§(Nyathi 2016: 49) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5GBCUTGG§REF§\r\n<br>\r\nThough sources distinguish between Saivism and Vaisnavism, the following suggests that the majority of the population followed both, and indeed likely other Hindu sects as well. “It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/ATSZ6QBU§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1122, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Jainism had a little more importance than Buddhism. [...] Yet Jains continued their hold in Pandinadu.\" §REF§(Nyathi 2016: 52) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5GBCUTGG§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1123, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Buddhism was not popular during those days.\" §REF§(Nyathi 2016: 52) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5GBCUTGG§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1124, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 246, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "North American Indigenous Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“The renewal of the Huron-French alliance coincided with the beginning of nearly a decade of successive epidemics, including smallpox, influenza, and other maladies that ended with the Huron population of 21,000 cut to about 10,000. As disease and death swept the Hurons, they resorted to familiar means of explain and combating the outbreaks. They invoked traditional rituals while their shamans fasted and dreamed in hopes of discovering new, more effective solutions. As a people who placed high priority on consensual harmony, they also feared witchcraft. After a few Hurons were accused, attention focused on the Jesuits. The Indians noted that the epidemics began shortly after the missionaries’ arrival in their villages. The fact that the Jesuits were aspared led some Hurons to assume that conversion would save them too; when it failed to do so, many saw it as further evidence of Jesuit malevolence. And the Jesuits’s insistence on baptizing only the dying led the Hurons to assume a cause and effect relationship here as well.” […] “In spite of these inducements, the Jesuits’ success remained sharply limited […] Instead of the mass Christianization they had sought, the missionaries had simply disrupted a society that placed high value on consensus in its social, political and religious life. Their insistence that converts abandon traditional religious practices extended to community rituals such as funerals, the periodic reburials known as Feasts of the Dead, and war parties against the Iroquois. The result was bitter factionalism characterized by violence, family quarrels, threats, and bribes. The missionaries’ very success with some Hurons reinforced the rest in their conviction that the Jesuits sought to destroy their ties to the supernatural forces that held their society together.” §REF§(Sailsbury 1992: 504; 505) Sailsbury, Neal. 1992. ‘Religious Encounters in a Colonial Context: New England and New France in the Seventeenth Century.’ American Indian Quarterly. 16:4. Pp 501-504. Seshat URL: Zotero link: RKRB3VXQ§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1125, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "The following quote refers to the French colony in Pondicherry (Madras), Tamil Nadu, India. “Just before the Revolution, France’s eighteenth-century colonial claims in India underwent an administrative reorganization. The changes subordinated most of the colonies to the Governor of Pondicherry. The local Tamil population, divided among Hindus , Christians and Muslims, were considered French subjects in Pondicherry, and they significantly outnumbered the European residents.” §REF§(Banks and Edwards 2022:150) Banks, Bryan A. and Edwards, Erica Johnson. 2022. ‘Religion and Revolution in Europe.’ In The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Europe. Edited by Grace Davie and Lucian Luestean. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: Zotero link: JGZHEPUW§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1126, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 117, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Druze Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1127, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 106, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Maronite Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1128, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 118, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Catholic Melkites", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1129, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 119, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Greek Catholic Unitates", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1130, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 120, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Metwalis Sect Shiite Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1131, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 121, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1132, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 122, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Chaldean Catholic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1133, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 123, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Kurdish Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1134, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1135, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1136, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 47, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Protestant Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1137, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 124, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Kizilbas Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1138, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Undoubtedly, shamanism in Mongolia predates the time of Chinggis Khan, as the Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE) feared the soothsayers of the Xiongnu Empire. The major studies of early Mongolian shamanism by D. Bazarov, Ch. Dalai, B. Rinchen, S. Badamkhatan, Kh. Buyanbat, D. Mansan, and O. Purev, trace its origins to the Paleolithic era and to the matriarchal lineage of the Mongols. Among these scholars, the Sinologist Ch. Dalai gives several terms for shamanism from Chinese sources of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, where samao stands for a female shaman. [...] In the quriltai of 1206, the chief shaman Teb Tenggeri, a son of Mönglik of Qongqotan lineage and a chief shaman of that time, proclaimed Temüjin to be recognized by heaven. However, Chinggis Khan saw Teb Tenggeri, and his power to read and interpret the will of heaven, as an adversary to him and a threat to his rise as the leader of a unified state. Therefore, Chinggis Khan realized that he could invoke the idea of the absolute power of eternal heaven himself to justify his reign and thus to be recognized by others. According to The Secret History of the Mongols, Temüjin’s affliation to the supreme power was revealed by a blood clot in his hand at the time of his birth, the charisma shown in his face and eyes, and his success in warfare, which were supposedly decreed by heaven.”§REF§ May, T., & Hope, M. (2022). The Mongol world (Routledge worlds). Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/63HC3WEV/items/3UJD4A7C/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1139, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Nestorian Christianity spread among the Altaic tribes, such as the Naiman, Merkit, Önggüt, Uyghurs, and Kereit, and made signifcant inroads among the Mongols during the eleventh century.”§REF§ May, T., & Hope, M. (2022). The Mongol world (Routledge worlds). Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/63HC3WEV/items/3UJD4A7C/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1140, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 134, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Monophysite Jacobites", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1141, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 115, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Suriyanis Syriac Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1142, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 108, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Yazidism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1143, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1144, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1145, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 136, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Marcionism Dualist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1146, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 137, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Paulicianism Dualist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1147, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 138, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Bogomilism Dualist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1148, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 139, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tondrakism Dualist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1149, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 107, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nestorian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1150, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1151, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1152, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1153, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 1154, "polity": { "id": 639, "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date[...].” §REF§ (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list §REF§ \"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/CZB48WKQ/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1155, "polity": { "id": 639, "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“At the top of the Ajuran hierarchy was the imam, a title used only by Shi’ite Islamic administrations.” §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Ajuran Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie. Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5U3NQRMR/library §REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1156, "polity": { "id": 646, "name": "so_ifat_sultanate", "long_name": "Ifat Sultanate", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1375 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date[...].” §REF§ (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list §REF§ \"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/CZB48WKQ/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1157, "polity": { "id": 654, "name": "so_isaaq_sultanate", "long_name": "Isaaq Sultanate", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date[...].” §REF§ (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list §REF§ \"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/CZB48WKQ/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1158, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"After the eleventh century the Sayfuwa [dynasty] began to incorporate Islamic principles into their political system\" (Gronenborn 2002: 103)", "description": "" }, { "id": 1159, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": null, "comment": "\"Historically, Bamana culture was distinguished from other Mandekan peoples such as the Soninke and Maninka by the relatively slow progress that Islam was able to make against local traditional religion. Muslim families who were mostly of Soninke origin were present in the Bamana Segou state beginning with the time of its founder, Mamary Biton Kulubali (c. 1712-c. 1755), but the rulers (''faamaw'') and most of the population continued in the traditional system of belief until the burning of the ''boliw'' and forced conversions following the Islamic conquest of Al-Hajj Umar in 1861. There were Muslims in Segou from the time of its founding, but the four great ''boliw'' were the cornerstones of the state religion and power structure, and the profound faith in their protective qualities doubtless had a good deal to do with the Bamana's extended resistance to Islam. A Segou ''faama'' could not govern without control of the four great ''boliw'', which were critical to the acquisition and maintenance of political power.\"§REF§D. Conrad , 2008, in J.P. Colleyn (ed.) ''Bamana: the art of existence in Mali'' pp. 35-43. New York: Museum of African Art.§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1160, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "sm_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Historically, Bamana culture was distinguished from other Mandekan peoples such as the Soninke and Maninka by the relatively slow progress that Islam was able to make against local traditional religion. Muslim families who were mostly of Soninke origin were present in the Bamana Segou state beginning with the time of its founder, Mamary Biton Kulubali (c. 1712-c. 1755), but the rulers (''faamaw'') and most of the population continued in the traditional system of belief until the burning of the ''boliw'' and forced conversions following the Islamic conquest of Al-Hajj Umar in 1861. There were Muslims in Segou from the time of its founding, but the four great ''boliw'' were the cornerstones of the state religion and power structure, and the profound faith in their protective qualities doubtless had a good deal to do with the Bamana's extended resistance to Islam. A Segou ''faama'' could not govern without control of the four great ''boliw'', which were critical to the acquisition and maintenance of political power.\"§REF§D. Conrad , 2008, in J.P. Colleyn (ed.) ''Bamana: the art of existence in Mali'' pp. 35-43. New York: Museum of African Art.§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 1162, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 158, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Chinese Popular Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Throughout this age of ritual and philosophical innovation, of the rise and collapse (and rise) of empires and cultural orders, older cults and practical traditions continued, in basic ways as they had for centuries, since at least the period in which we begin to have evidence for religious practice in China. In the most general terms, the character of the human relationship with the spirit world continued to be a central feature of Chinese religious practice (as it does today).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SGG5RZ8N\">[Copp_Nadeau 2012, p. 95]</a> \"Most “Han” Chinese throughout China’s long history have not had confessional religious identities, with the exception of very small pockets of groups claiming Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and millenarian/sectarian identities. The overwhelming majority of Han Chinese would not call themselves Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian. They enshrine Daoist, Buddhist, or other kinds of deities on their domestic altars alongside the tablets for their ancestors in a seemingly indiscriminate manner and they approach in a seemingly opportunistic manner deities or religious specialists of whichever persuasion to exorcize evil spirits, ward off bad fortune, produce a good marriage partner or a long-awaited male descendant, deliver good fortune and blessing for the family or cure for a difficult illness, find a lost cattle or motorcycle, or resolve a life dilemma. [...] The temples and specialists might, and do, vie with one another for clientele and donations, 4 but they never take the form of one religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Buddhism) against another religious tradition as a whole (e.g., Daoism) except occasionally at the elite, discursive level and in competition for patronage by the dynastic court (again usually at the elite level)[...]. [...] In contrast to among the commoner majority, more or less coherent religious group identities did develop during dynastic times among the elite religious practitioners such as members of the Buddhist sangha , the Quanzhen Daoist monastic order, and Confucian academies. [...] But one has to remember that the elite members of these religious traditions with a stronger sense of religious identities were a very small minority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BETEPDVT\">[Chau_Schmidt-Leukel_Gentz 2013, pp. 146-148]</a>", "description": "" } ] }