Widespread Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Widespread Religions.
GET /api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=22
{ "count": 1205, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=23", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=21", "results": [ { "id": 1062, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“From among the poetic, legal, and philosophical approaches to religion, poetry and the poetic use of myth came to play a prominent role in the imperial reshaping of Roman religious tradition under Augustus. There can be little doubt that the Aeneid supplied and spread a mythological understanding of imperial rule and also of Roman religion under Augustus’ rule and beyond; myth, presented in poetic form, underpinned the interlocking systems of power and knowledge that supported imperial rule. If we accept Zanker’s thesis that myth in particular was developed in dialogue with its presumed public, reflecting, at least to some extent, their societal ideals in the Augustan age, senators must also have played a role in shaping the myths of their time. Syme’s alternative and more top-down account of the coming of the empire, in which senators appear as painfully struggling to keep up a system of values separate from the princeps during the early years of the principate, still begs the question of senatorial participation in religious self-legitimization.” §REF§ (Várhelyi 2010, 155) Várhelyi, Zsuzsanna. 2010. The Religion of Senators in the Roman Empire: Power and the Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2WHKEHM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2WHKEHM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1063, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“We may suspect that for the Goths an essential feature of their Arianism was simply that it was not the faith of the Romans […] the Christianity they practiced was deemed heretical by the numerically dominant population among whom they settled.” §REF§ (Moorhead 1992, 95) Moorhead, John. 1992. Theodoric in Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X8RGRNS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X8RGRNS8 </b></a>§REF§ “Ostrogothic Italy was comprised of different religious communities, the most prominent of which were Catholic Christians, Jews, and the Ostrogoths themselves who have typically been labelled as ‘Arians’.” §REF§(Cohen 2016, 503) Cohen, Samuel. 2016. ‘Religious Diversity’. In The Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. Edited by Jonathan J. Arnold. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPK4466C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SPK4466C </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1064, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Regarding this variable, Professor Jorg Rupke states \"There are local variations of a regional koine and of course individual variations within the locality. Yet, institutionally, in that period Rome developed her own institutions while sharing practices and beliefs.\" “During the sixth and fifth centuries the city-states of Latium maintained their independence but were organised in a League allied to Rome. But during the fourth century, they began to be absorbed, one by one, into the ever growing Roman state. […] The political and religious institutions of the city-states of Latium were broadly comparable to those of Rome, in spite of minor differences of detail.” §REF§(Cornell 2000, 209, 222), Cornell, Tim. 2000. ‘The City-States in Latium’, in Hansen, Morgens Herman (ed.), A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation. CA Reitzels Forlag: Copenhagen. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AYPJQXYQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AYPJQXYQ </b></a>§REF§ “From around 600, the inhabitants of some cities and towns began to build large elaborate temples to their gods. […] These structures had an important place in communal identity. […] Temples and open air shrines formed the stage for many of the city’s [Rome] most important religious rites, and they also provided the site for other elaborate displays of wealth and power. Votive offerings were prominent in central Italian cult places […] Individuals occupying a wide range of statuses made dedications.” §REF§ (Boatwright 2004, 19-20) Boatwright, Mary. 2004. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AKNJNXWG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AKNJNXWG </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1065, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Reagarding this variable, Professor Jorg Rupke writes: \"In a tautological sense, it is true; in terms of 'adherents', I am doubtful, probably more people interested in ancestor cults (ancestors start to be addressed as 'Di manes' from the end of the 1st cent. BCE onwards). Perhaps Roman and Latin religions?\"\r\n\r\n“Religion formed an important part of Rome’s organization, and the prominent remains of cult places show that this was from the beginning of the city. Roman religion cannot be separated from the city and its public institutions or from the social groups, neighbourhoods, towns, and villages that made up the Republic of the Roman people; in all these, there were hardly any body with a sense of common identity and interests that lacked its own divinities, which it worshipped in its own ways. Thus Rome itself had its protecting divinities, and the city’s officials and priests took the lead in cultivating them. Households contained shrines to the lares, ancestral spirits, and the penates, the protective divinities of the house, while old aristocratic families maintained their own special relationships with major gods. Away from Rome, the towns and villages inhabited by Roman citizens had their own special temples, shrines, cult activities. In the countryside, some forms of religious activity concentrated around crossroads.” §REF§ (Boatwright 2004, 71) Boatwright, Mary. 2004. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§ “The Senate’s policy in regard to religion was conservative. […] the result of this policy was to compel a Roman citizen to confine himself to the worship of the gods of the state. In a state in which religion and citizenship were so closely linked, it was not strange that a citizen’s religion as well as his civic life, should be so controlled.” §REF§ (Guterman 1971, 28) Guterman, Simeon. 1971. Religious Toleration and Persecution in ancient Rome. London: Aiglion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DGNRK6XG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DGNRK6XG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1066, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests that most of the growing polity's religions were amalgamated into the same religious system. “During the fourth century, [the city-states of Latium] began to be absorbed, one by one, into the ever growing Roman state. […] The political and religious institutions of the city-states of Latium were broadly comparable to those of Rome, in spite of minor differences of detail.” §REF§(Cornell 2000, 209, 222), Cornell, Tim. 2000. ‘The City-States in Latium’, in Hansen, Morgens Herman (ed.), A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation. CA Reitzels Forlag: Copenhagen. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AYPJQXYQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AYPJQXYQ </b></a> §REF§ “Two of the hallmarks of Roman colonization were a simultaneous acceptance on the part of the Romans of the native cults of newly conquered regions and the introduction of distinctly Roman forms of worship and production.” §REF§(Livi, 2006, 113) Livi, Valentina, ‘Religious locales in the territory of Minturnae: aspects of Romanization’ in Schultz, C & Harvey, P (eds). 2006. Religion in Republican Italy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FKEJ9VAT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FKEJ9VAT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1067, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“[Roman Catholic Christianity] was not popular religion in the sense that it was peculiar to the illiterate masses, but a belief holding near-universal appeal.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 116) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§ “The late sixteenth century inaugurated a golden age of Catholic piety, celebrated with great pomp by teeming numbers of churchmen.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 127) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“The Inquisition presence was felt in every diocese in Italy […] Concern for orthodoxy rendered devotion virtually universal and monolithic. This religion required simple conformity from the greatest number, and gave those who desired it almost limitless possibilities of expression – on orthodox lines.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 135) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1068, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 277, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholicism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Most Italians wanted Church reform, few a new theology. Over the preceding two centuries they had elaborated a panoply of saints, texts, civic rituals, and devotions into a distinctively Italianate form of Renaissance Christianity. Most preferred to keep their own religious practices rather than adopt ‘German’ theology. Love of the Virgin and saints, more than respect for the hierarchy, kept them in the Catholic fold.” §REF§ (Najemy, 81) Najemy, John. 2004. Italy in the age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/79HN45T3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 79HN45T3 </b></a>§REF§ “One of the most baffling - and specific - questions of this period: why Italians, who arguably had suffered more abuse from the Renaissance papacy in the fifteenth century than any other people of Europe, should nevertheless have chosen in the sixteenth century to remain Catholic, rather than avail themselves of the opportunity to abandon the papacy and the sacramental clergy by embracing Lutheranism.” §REF§ (Peterson, 855) Peterson, David. 2000. ‘Out of the Margins: Religion and the Church in Renaissance Italy’. In Renaissance Quarterly. Vol. 53. 3. Pp. 835-879. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G4CWA22X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G4CWA22X </b></a>§REF§<br>“Most Italians wanted Church reform, few a new theology. Over the preceding two centuries they had elaborated a panoply of saints, texts, civic rituals, and devotions into a distinctively Italianate form of Renaissance Christianity. Most preferred to keep their own religious practices rather than adopt ‘German’ theology. Love of the Virgin and saints, more than respect for the hierarchy, kept them in the Catholic fold.” §REF§ (Najemy, 81) Najemy, John. 2004. Italy in the age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/79HN45T3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 79HN45T3 </b></a>§REF§ “one of the most baffling - and specific - questions of this period: why Italians, who arguably had suffered more abuse from the Renaissance papacy in the fifteenth century than any other people of Europe, should nevertheless have chosen in the sixteenth century to remain Catholic, rather than avail themselves of the opportunity to abandon the papacy and the sacramental clergy by embracing Lutheranism.” §REF§ (Peterson, 855) Peterson, David. 2000. ‘Out of the Margins: Religion and the Church in Renaissance Italy’. In Renaissance Quarterly. Vol. 53. 3. Pp. 835-879. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G4CWA22X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G4CWA22X </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1069, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The growth in the number of Christians in Rome (and elsewhere in the empire) continued in the fourth century. Some of these were more visible than others: particularly women of the senatorial order, prominent in the later fourth century for their parade of virginity, self-starvation and other ascetic practices. But overall the number of individual Christians is impossible to estimate; we know for certain only that the number of priests in Rome had risen by the end of the fourth century to around 70, and that by the early fifth century Rome had 25 principal centres of worship (and maybe 15 others). Along with this specifically Roman growth, the movement within the church from the Greek language to Latin continued; in the course of the fourth century the liturgy was turned into Latin. The Christian church was now divided, like the empire itself, into east and west.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 161) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1070, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The homogenizing process of Christian missionary work had been largely successful; by the eleventh century the majority of Europe was Christian.\" §REF§ (Peterson, 6) Peterson, Janine. 2009. ‘Holy Heretics in Later Medieval Italy’. In Past and Present. Vol 204. Pp. 3-31. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AX5J7D4G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AX5J7D4G </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1071, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“No sphere of Roman life illustrates so well the paradoxical combination of innovation and conservatism as religion. The Romans were notoriously conservative in the way they maintained ancient cult practices, and were punctilious in the performance of ritual acts in the manner prescribed by tradition. […] In Rome the ‘ideology of the three functions’ is most evident in religion. The three functions are represented by the gods Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, who according to Dumezil were at the centre of the Roman religion in the earliest period of the city’s development.” §REF§ (Cornell 2012, 25) Cornell, Tim. 2012. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M8AKJQJZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M8AKJQJZ </b></a>§REF§ “From around 600, the inhabitants of some cities and towns began to build large elaborate temples to their gods. […] These structures had an important place in communal identity. […] Temples and open air shrines formed the staged for many of the city’s most important religious rites, and they also provided the site for other elaborate displays of wealth and power. Votive offerings were prominent in central Italian cult places […] Individuals occupying a wide range of statuses made dedications.” §REF§ (Boatwright 2004, 19 - 20) Boatwright, Mary. 2004. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1072, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“This was not popular religion in the sense that it was peculiar to the illiterate masses, but a belief holding near-universal appeal.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 116) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§ “The late sixteenth century inaugurated a golden age of Catholic piety, celebrated with great pomp by teeming numbers of churchmen.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 127) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“The Inquisition presence was felt in every diocese in Italy […] Concern for orthodoxy rendered devotion virtually universal and monolithic. This religion required simple conformity from the greatest number, and gave those who desired it almost limitless possibilities of expression – on orthodox lines.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 135) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§<br>“Because of their intransigence, Capuchin numbers exploded. By 1650, they numbered almost 11,000, the largest religious order in Italy, and about a third of the various Franciscans.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 123) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“The best measure of monastic piety was the soaring recruitment into the orders. In 1650 Italy counted over 70,000 male religious, scattered in over 6,500 separate houses.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 125) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“The Inquisition presence was felt in every diocese in Italy […] Concern for orthodoxy rendered devotion virtually universal and monolithic. This religion required simple conformity from the greatest number, and gave those who desired it almost limitless possibilities of expression – on orthodox lines.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 135) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1073, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 280, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Latin Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Early archaeological evidence of ’cult’ religious activity in Latium suggested by burial and ritual deposits. Rituals may have followed agricultural rhythms. Widespread recognition of challenges of interpreting this evidence reliably. “The rhythm of ritual in early Latium seems to have been rooted in the agricultural year; the festivals which we believe to have been early have connotations of protecting the harvest and purifying the fields.” §REF§ (Smith 1995, 61). Smith, Chris, ‘Ritual and Archaeology in Early Latium’, Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal 1994 (1995), 57-64. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/46PD82DV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 46PD82DV </b></a> §REF§ “Beginning at the end of the eighth century, one location here [Gabii] took on special significance as a place where objects were regularly deposited. No temple was erected at the location, however, until the first half of the sixth century. The inhabitants of Gabii again frequently used miniatures in order to communicate with their (spiritual) counterparts; even miniature loaves of bread have been found.” §REF§ (Rüpke, 2018, 35) Rüpke, Jörg. Pantheon: A New History of Roman Religion. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2018. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D2CWAD75\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D2CWAD75 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1074, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The homogenizing process of Christian missionary work had been largely successful; by the eleventh century the majority of Europe was Christian.\" §REF§ (Peterson, 6) Peterson, Janine. 2009. ‘Holy Heretics in Later Medieval Italy’. In Past and Present. Vol 204. Pp. 3-31. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AX5J7D4G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AX5J7D4G </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1075, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 281, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Appenine religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from the fact that there is no mention of specifically localized funerary rites, rather they are found in several sites across Italy. I grouped the following quotes about funerary ritual evidence because they are from the same source but the first paragraph refers to a period included between 2200 CE and 1500CE; the second between c.1500BCE and 1350 BCE; the third between 1350CE-1200 BCE; and the last paragraph between 1200 BCE-700BCE. Appenine culture is an alternative name due to the fact that a high number of sites have been found along the Apennines. “The settlements include open-air sites—Tre Erici (Luni sul Mignone, Viterbo), Querciola and Lastruccia (Florence)—along with rock shelters and caves (e.g. Romita di Asciano, Fontino), that were used as dwelling places and for collective burial and cult practices.”[…]“The Apennine facies is documented over the entire peninsula, with direct continuity from the Pre- and Proto-Apennine aspects. […] In southern Italy there is continuity in the use of multiple or collective inhumation burials, whose specic feature is a marked ritual emphasis on weapon-bearers. There are some hints that similar funerary practices were also in use in central Italy.” […] “Cremation cemeteries appear in Lazio (Cavallo Morto) and Apulia (Canosa and Torre Castelluccia).” […] “Funerary practices are documented by small cremation cemeteries: Ponte S. Pietro and Sticciano Scalo (Tuscany), Panicarola and Monteleone di Spoleto (Umbria). The most important cemetery is Pianello di Genga (Ancona, Marche), with some 650 burials, and identied as corresponding to a ‘tribal’ community (Vanzetti 1999).” §REF§ (Bietti Sestrieri 2013: 638-641) Bietti Sestrieri, Anna Maria, 2013. “Peninsular Italy”, in Harry Fokkens and Anthony Harding (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press), pp. 632-652. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3TKCEUR6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3TKCEUR6 </b></a> §REF§“Si può certamente affermare che una chiara “visibilità” della religione e l’esistenza di uomini e donne impegnati a tempo pieno nelle attività religiose sono elementi della documentazione archeologica che fanno la loro comparsa già alla fine dell’età del Bronzo. [Translation: It can certainly be said that a clear \"visibility\" of religion and the existence of men and women engaged full-time in religious activities are elements of the archaeological evidence that make their appearance already at the end of the Bronze Age.]” §REF§ (Guidi 2009: 148) Alessandro Guidi, 2009. “Aspetti Della Religione Tra La Fine Dell’età Del Bronzo E La I Età Del Ferro*”, in Luciana Drago Troccoli (ed.), Il Lazio dai Colli Albani ai Monti Lepini tra preistoria ed età moderna (Rome: Edizioni Quasar), pp. 143-151. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NXK3H2JA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NXK3H2JA </b></a> §REF§ “The end of the Bronze Age is a period in which we see a wide spread of open air cult sites and ritual activity in general. One such “sanctuary” was found in the excavations under the temple of Diana in Nemi [in Latium].” §REF§ (Guidi 2016: 10) Guidi, Alessandro, 2016. “Religion, Art, Law, Ethnicity and State Formation in Protohistoric Italy”, in Jorn F. Seubers, P. A. J. Attema, Sarah L. Willemsen (eds.), Early States, Territories and Settlements in Protohistoric Central Italy: Proceedings of a Specialist Conference at the Groningen Institute of Archaeology of the University of Groningen, 2013.Netherlands: University of Groningen/Groningen Institute of Archaeology, pp.9-15. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/79VWG2WI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 79VWG2WI </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote refers to Early Bronze Age evidence of rituals, albeit minimal, due to potential change in interpretation of the role of ancestor worship. “Though certain ritual practices can be recognized, which they have in common with the northern Alpine area, the grave goods are generally modest. […] It can thus be supposed that the decrease in funerary evidence during the EBA, or perhaps only the decrease in its visibility, may be related to a thoroughgoing change in ideological and ritual factors. The general impression is that of a change in the ideological scenario, entailing a greater identification with village communities rather than with kinship descent and ancestor worship. In other words, a greater investment in the present or future, rather than an identity investment in the community’s past.” §REF§ (Cardelli 2015: 163-164) Cardelli, Andrea, 2015. “DIFFERENT FORMS OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY IN BRONZE AGE ITALY”, in Andrea Cardarelli, Alberto Cazzella and Marcella Frangipane (eds.), ORIGINI: PREHISTORY AND PROTOHISTORY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS XXXVIII (2), THEMATIC ISSUE: THE ORIGIN OF INEQUALITY (Rome: Gangemi Editore), pp.151-200. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5BDTV7GN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5BDTV7GN </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1076, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The agency of the Roman Church whose institutions and functions supplied the prime and central means of civic activity and representation. The secular life of Rome continued but was muted in comparison with the growing power and splendour of the papacy; the sanatorium in the church, still so called, was no longer occupied by senators but simply by the archium, the authorities. The civilian population, more localized than it had been in the sixth century, was drawn into the orbit of the Church as it forgot its original connection with the Empire and saw the papacy increasingly as the proper leader of the city.” §REF§(Llewellyn 1971, 140) Llewellyn, Peter. 1971. Rome in the Dark Ages. London: Faber. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZSZ2XBTF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZSZ2XBTF </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1077, "polity": { "id": 178, "name": "it_latium_ca", "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age", "start_year": -3600, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 282, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Latium Copper Age religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In much of Europe, the late fifth to the late third millennia BC was characterized by four sweeping changes that fundamentally altered the fabric of Neolithic society […] The second, occurring in lockstep with the first, was the new prominence of burial as a social practice, including the establishment of formal cemeteries, new funerary structures (e.g., megaliths and chamber tombs), and mortuary rites that centered on two seemingly contrasting principles: the breaking up and mixing of ancestors in collective tombs, and the expression of personal identity in individual burials. […] Notwithstanding the many countertrends visible in the regional record (e.g., large fortified settlements in Iberia; Garcia and Murillo-Barroso 2013), these entwined material and social transformations seemingly affected, with varying intensity, all late Neolithic and Chalcolithic societies from northern Europe to the Mediterranean.” §REF§ (Dolfini 2020: 504) Dolfini, Andrea, 2020. From the Neolithic to the Bronze Age in Central Italy: Settlement, Burial, and Social Change at the Dawn of Metal Production. Journal of Archaeological Research 28, pp. 503–556. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JSQJJN84\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JSQJJN84 </b></a> §REF§ “Other social aspects of Copper Age Italy are provided by the ritual incision on rocks and the cult practice of erecting stelae statues. It has been argued that they represent attempts to celebrate the heroic and mythical qualities of ancestors, or at least a desire to mark their social status.” §REF§ (Cardelli 2015: 154-155) Cardelli, Andrea, 2015. “DIFFERENT FORMS OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY IN BRONZE AGE ITALY”, in Andrea Cardarelli, Alberto Cazzella and Marcella Frangipane (eds.), ORIGINI: PREHISTORY AND PROTOHISTORY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS XXXVIII (2), THEMATIC ISSUE: THE ORIGIN OF INEQUALITY (Rome: Gangemi Editore), pp.151-200. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5BDTV7GN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5BDTV7GN </b></a> §REF§ “The Copper Age of central Italy (c. 3750 to 2200 cal. BC) is characterised by a number of different burial traditions, which co-existed side-by-side in this territory until the beginning of the second millennium BC. The most important evidence in terms of number of burial sites and depth of archaeological research is made up by cemeteries with rock-cut tombs, about fifty of which have been discovered so far on either sides of the Apennine chain (Negroni Catacchio 2000).” §REF§ (Adolfini 2006: 58) Dolfini, Andrea. 2006. “Embodied Inequalities: Burial and Social Differentiation in Copper Age Central Italy”, Archaeological Review from Cambridge, 21(2), pp. 58-77. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B5JXW629\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B5JXW629 </b></a> §REF§ “. Single burial in trench graves and single or collective burial in rock-cut tombs both occur, as well as occasional collective burials in natural caves or crevices. A recent study has distinguished a coastal and sub-coastal zone in Lazio and Tuscany in which rock-cut tombs were most common, and a peripheral zone in the interior and to the north and south, in which single burials in earth graves was the predominant rite. More than thirty funerary sites are known in the Rinaldone area and several of the tombs in the Conelle-Ortucchi.” §REF§ (Whitehouse and Renfrew 1974: 347). Whitehouse, Ruth, and Colin Renfrew. “The Copper Age of Peninsular Italy and the Aegean.” The Annual of the British School at Athens, vol. 69, 1974, pp. 343–90. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H47T6HQI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: H47T6HQI </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1078, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Central to the Egyptians’ views of kingship was the concept of ma’at which, whilst sometimes translatable as ‘justice’ or ‘truth’, is a term whose meaning goes far beyond legal fairness or factual accuracy. It was used to refer to the ideal state of the universe and society, and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Although of eternal existence its operation in the world of men was the responsibility of the king, and as such must have acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power: a ‘natural’ morality in the place of institutional checks.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 74) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§ “According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 13) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Divine kingship is the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs its cult was given monumental expression of grandeur unsurpassed anywhere in the ancient Near East. Yet despite its all-pervading influence in Egyptian civilization it is not easy to present a coherent account of its doctrines […]” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 72) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§ “In Egypt provincial aspirations were normally contained within a system centered on a single royal government, whose paramount authority was expressed through the doctrines of divine kingship, containing theological elements derived from various parts of the country, through monumental building and through statue cults at provincial temples.”§REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 103) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1079, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The First Intermediate Period or ‘Period of the Regions’ is known as a ‘dark age’ in Egyptian history. Central government collapsed and power was disseminated throughout the region, mostly to nomarchs (governors or administrators of nomes/Egyptian districts). A lack of reliable records as well as a lack of art and architecture (there was no central government to fund commissions) means that we know very little about this time period. Most of our understanding of this period comes from the Middle Kingdom and they mark it negatively as a time of disturbance. Regarding the ‘most widespread religion’, the following quotes are the same as for the polities for Old Kingdom I and II because we have no evidence that anything drastically changed from a religious standpoint. “Some of the changes in material culture are indicative of development in religious beliefs and ritual practices, as in the case of the introduction of mummy masks. However, the most important body of evidence for belief systems in provincial society during the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom is the vast corpus of Coffin Texts, which were magical and liturgical spells inscribed principally onto the sides of wooden coffins. While it is obvious that the bulk of the evidence for these texts dates to the Middle Kingdom, there are a few instances that show that they already emerged during the First Intermediate Period.” §REF§ (Shaw 2000, 115) Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§ “Central to the Egyptians‘ views of kingship was the concept of ma’at which, whilst sometimes translatable as ‘justice’ or ‘truth’, is a term whose meaning goes far beyond legal fairness or factual accuracy. It was used to refer to the ideal state of the universe and society, and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Although of eternal existence its operation in the world of men was the responsibility of the king, and as such must have acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power: a ‘natural’ morality in the place of institutional checks.” […] “Divine kingship is the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs its cult was given monumental expression of grandeur unsurpassed anywhere in the ancient Near East. Yet despite its all-pervading influence in Egyptian civilization it is not easy to present a coherent account of its doctrines […]” “In Egypt provincial aspirations were normally contained within a system centered on a single royal government, whose paramount authority was expressed through the doctrines of divine kingship, containing theological elements derived from various parts of the country, through monumental building and through statue cults at provincial temples.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 72-74, 103) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§ “According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” […] “Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” […]“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 13-14, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§<br>“Some of the changes in material culture are indicative of development in religious beliefs and ritual practices, as in the case of the introduction of mummy masks. However, the most important body of evidence for belief systems in provincial society during the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom is the vast corpus of Coffin Texts, which were magical and liturgical spells inscribed principally onto the sides of wooden coffins. While it is obvious that the bulk of the evidence for these texts dates to the Middle Kingdom, there are a few instances that show that they already emerged during the First Intermediate Period.” §REF§ (Shaw 2000, 115) Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§“Central to the Egyptians‘ views of kingship was the concept of ma’at which, whilst sometimes translatable as ‘justice’ or ‘truth’, is a term whose meaning goes far beyond legal fairness or factual accuracy. It was used to refer to the ideal state of the universe and society, and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Although of eternal existence its operation in the world of men was the responsibility of the king, and as such must have acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power: a ‘natural’ morality in the place of institutional checks.” […] “Divine kingship is the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs its cult was given monumental expression of grandeur unsurpassed anywhere in the ancient Near East. Yet despite its all-pervading influence in Egyptian civilization it is not easy to present a coherent account of its doctrines […]” […] “In Egypt provincial aspirations were normally contained within a system centered on a single royal government, whose paramount authority was expressed through the doctrines of divine kingship, containing theological elements derived from various parts of the country, through monumental building and through statue cults at provincial temples.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 72-74, 103) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§“According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” […] “Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” […] “Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 13-14, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ >URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> </ref" }, { "id": 1080, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Some of the changes in material culture are indicative of development in religious beliefs and ritual practices, as in the case of the introduction of mummy masks. However, the most important body of evidence for belief systems in provincial society during the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom is the vast corpus of Coffin Texts, which were magical and liturgical spells inscribed principally onto the sides of wooden coffins. While it is obvious that the bulk of the evidence for these texts dates to the Middle Kingdom, there are a few instances that show that they already emerged during the First Intermediate Period.” §REF§ (Shaw 2000, 115) Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§ “Central to the Egyptians‘ views of kingship was the concept of ma’at which, whilst sometimes translatable as ‘justice’ or ‘truth’, is a term whose meaning goes far beyond legal fairness or factual accuracy. It was used to refer to the ideal state of the universe and society, and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Although of eternal existence its operation in the world of men was the responsibility of the king, and as such must have acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power: a ‘natural’ morality in the place of institutional checks.” […] “Divine kingship is the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs its cult was given monumental expression of grandeur unsurpassed anywhere in the ancient Near East. Yet despite its all-pervading influence in Egyptian civilization it is not easy to present a coherent account of its doctrines […]” “In Egypt provincial aspirations were normally contained within a system centered on a single royal government, whose paramount authority was expressed through the doctrines of divine kingship, containing theological elements derived from various parts of the country, through monumental building and through statue cults at provincial temples.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 72-74, 103) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§ “According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” […] “Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” […]“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 13-14, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§<br>“Some of the changes in material culture are indicative of development in religious beliefs and ritual practices, as in the case of the introduction of mummy masks. However, the most important body of evidence for belief systems in provincial society during the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom is the vast corpus of Coffin Texts, which were magical and liturgical spells inscribed principally onto the sides of wooden coffins. While it is obvious that the bulk of the evidence for these texts dates to the Middle Kingdom, there are a few instances that show that they already emerged during the First Intermediate Period.” §REF§ (Shaw 2000, 115) Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§“Central to the Egyptians‘ views of kingship was the concept of ma’at which, whilst sometimes translatable as ‘justice’ or ‘truth’, is a term whose meaning goes far beyond legal fairness or factual accuracy. It was used to refer to the ideal state of the universe and society, and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Although of eternal existence its operation in the world of men was the responsibility of the king, and as such must have acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power: a ‘natural’ morality in the place of institutional checks.” […] “Divine kingship is the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs its cult was given monumental expression of grandeur unsurpassed anywhere in the ancient Near East. Yet despite its all-pervading influence in Egyptian civilization it is not easy to present a coherent account of its doctrines […]” […] “In Egypt provincial aspirations were normally contained within a system centered on a single royal government, whose paramount authority was expressed through the doctrines of divine kingship, containing theological elements derived from various parts of the country, through monumental building and through statue cults at provincial temples.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 72-74, 103) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§“According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” […] “Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” […] “Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 13-14, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1081, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Central to the Egyptians’ views of kingship was the concept of ma’at which, whilst sometimes translatable as ‘justice’ or ‘truth’, is a term whose meaning goes far beyond legal fairness or factual accuracy. It was used to refer to the ideal state of the universe and society, and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Although of eternal existence its operation in the world of men was the responsibility of the king, and as such must have acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power: a ‘natural’ morality in the place of institutional checks.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 74) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§ “According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 13) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Divine kingship is the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs its cult was given monumental expression of grandeur unsurpassed anywhere in the ancient Near East. Yet despite its all-pervading influence in Egyptian civilization it is not easy to present a coherent account of its doctrines […]” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 72) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§ “In Egypt provincial aspirations were normally contained within a system centered on a single royal government, whose paramount authority was expressed through the doctrines of divine kingship, containing theological elements derived from various parts of the country, through monumental building and through statue cults at provincial temples.”§REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 103) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1082, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 283, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Early Dynastic Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Later in the Early Dynastic Period […] the religion of ordinary provincial communities had little, if anything, in common with the cult of kingship being promulgated by the state. The small, informal shrines at Elephantine, Abydos, and Tell Ibrahim Awad reflect a very different set of beliefs and practices (Kemp 2006: 112– 35), focused on fertility, childbirth, and protection from harmful forces, the stuff of everyday concerns far removed from the cosmic ambitions of the king.” §REF§ (Wilkinson 2010: 57) Wilkinson, Toby, 2010. “The Early Dynastic Period”, in Alan B. Lloyd (ed.), A Companion to Ancient Egypt, vol. I, (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing), pp. 48-62. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49HDQN8I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 49HDQN8I </b></a> §REF§ “Some of the inscribed labels from the 1st Dynasty bear scenes with structures that are temples or shrines, such as the walled compound for the goddess Neith in the top register of a wooden label from Aha's tomb at Abydos. Early writing also appears on some of the small votive artefacts that were probably offerings or donations to cult centres. Early Dynastic carved stone vessels were sometimes inscribed, and signs on some of these suggest that they may have come from cult centres. A number of such stone vessels may have been usurped from cult centre(s)of gods and buried in Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Such evidence points to the existence of cult temples outside the royal mortuary cult in the Early Dynastic Period, but there is very little archaeological evidence of such architecture.[…] [T]he main Early Dynastic cult temples at Abydos, Hierakonpolis, and Elephantine have not yet been located and excavated, but what evidence there is points to the existence of cult temple compounds within towns. Such temples served a different function from those associated with the funerary complexes, which were located outside the towns. The architectural evidence of Early Dynastic Egyptian cults (of unknown deities) is much less impressive than the contemporaneous remains of temples in southern Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, town cult centres in Early Dynastic Egypt may have served to integrate society in towns and nomes in a shared belief system that was perhaps of more immediate significance to the lives of the local peoples than the mortuary cults in royal and elite cemeteries.” §REF§ (Bard in Shaw 2003: 76, 78) Bard, Kathryn, 2003. “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686BC)”, in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.57-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQESRMD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQESRMD7 </b></a> §REF§<br>[T]he main Early Dynastic cult temples at Abydos, Hierakonpolis, and Elephantine have not yet been located and excavated, but what evidence there is points to the existence of cult temple compounds within towns. Such temples served a different function from those associated with the funerary complexes, which were located outside the towns. The architectural evidence of Early Dynastic Egyptian cults (of unknown deities) is much less impressive than the contemporaneous remains of temples in southern Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, town cult centres in Early Dynastic Egypt may have served to integrate society in towns and nomes in a shared belief system that was perhaps of more immediate significance to the lives of the local peoples than the mortuary cults in royal and elite cemeteries.” §REF§ (Bard in Shaw 2003: 78) Bard, Kathryn, 2003. “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686BC)”, in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.57-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQESRMD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQESRMD7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1083, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "It has been nearly impossible to find a quote which outrightly says that the most widespread religion in Ancient Egypt was the Ancient Egyptian religion. It is always folded into the texts in pursuit of other thesis statements, as if it’s an obvious reality. The following quotes paint a picture of the religious situation in Egypt at this time. The last quote makes it clear that to become Egyptian is to adopt Egyptian culture ‘in all its forms’, which includes religion. Any other information at this time appears to be extremely difficult to know, given scant records of this time. “According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” §REF§(Teeter 2013, 13) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§“Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” §REF§(Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Pharaoh worshipped the god, and the populace worshipped pharaoh; that was the system, and there were few concessions within the system to humanity.” §REF§ (Reeves 2004, 7) Reeves, Nicholas. 2004. ‘Who was Akhenaten?’. Fitzwilliam Museum Lecture. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DABD2XP5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DABD2XP5 </b></a> §REF§“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§(Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§“At this time the capital of the Egyptian empire was Thebes […] and its chief divinity, Amūn, became the first god of Egyptian pantheon. He was often associated with the solar god Rē and as such was venerated in numerous Theban temples. The main sanctuary of his cult was in Ipt-swt, where subsequent Kings of the XVIIIth Dynasty enlarged the temple erected by the rulers of the Middle Kingdom and constructed new chapels within its precincts. […] All these temples were places where daily ritual was performed by priests, and where religion and political feasts were attended by common people.” §REF§ (Myśliwiec 1985, 1) Myśliwiec, Karol. Eighteenth Dynasty Before the Amarna Period. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PR6DMARG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PR6DMARG </b></a>§REF§ This quote demonstrates that religion is a large part of ‘being Egyptian’. Which may illuminate some idea of numbers of people following the Ancient Egyptian religion.“Whilst the Egyptians were certainly capable of thinking of mankind as a collection of differing peoples, their self-perception in relation to neighbours was marked by a strong sense of superiority. They are perfectly capable of using the word ‘man’ (rmṯ) in the sense of ‘Egyptian’, i.e. everyone else was subhuman (Wb. ii. 423 l. 4). However, it is important to realize that this mode of thought was not, in the strict sense, racial in content; it was not a reaction to physical characteristics but to cultural differences such as language, religious practices, and diet. It was, therefore, perfectly possible for a foreigner to become ‘Egyptian’ by adopting fully the culture of Egypt in all its forms, and throughout Egyptian history this took place on countless occasions.” §REF§ (Lloyd 2014, 210) Lloyd, Alan. Ancient Egypt: State and Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2DW8SDF8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2DW8SDF8 </b></a>§REF§“Quirke expresses this dichotomy in the Egyptian pantheon as two separate forces at work in Egyptian communities: 1) the need for a distinct local worship for local communities and 2) the need for a common culture that encompasses all Egyptians.” §REF§(Hutchinson 2019, 52) Hutchinson, Amber. 2019. Provincial Cults during the Eighteenth Dynasty: Dialectical Relationship between Royal Patronage and Non-Royal Votive Activity. Toronto: University of Toronto. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXCH8U5V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AXCH8U5V </b></a>§REF§“Most of what we mean by 'Egyptian religion' was […] something expressed more formally, through sacred buildings and a stream of theological speculation and writing. It was not in its nature to impose participation on the individual (other than the king); there was no community of the faithful. Thus the older 'wisdom' texts of instruction on how a person might lead a proper life, which came into use at least as early as c. 2100 BC, ignore temple cults. The New Kingdom instruction of Ani (composed perhaps c. 1300 BC) tells the reader to celebrate the annual festival of his god but urges no further observance, although other texts from the later New Kingdom do imply that visits to local temples were by now a fairly regular part of life, at least for the official class.” §REF§ (Kemp 1995, 50) ‘How Religious were the Ancient Egyptians?’. 1995. Cambridge Archaeological Journal. Vol. 5. Pp. 25-54. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HNHVMVCC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HNHVMVCC </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1084, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 284, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Badari religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Religious belief systems are often related to notions of an afterlife and reflected in burial customs. The efforts to provide the deceased with grave goods, tombs, or grave markers are the material manifestation of such beliefs, as well as the social structure of the society of the living. […] The Badari culture was originally identified in the region of Badari [Qaw el- Kebir, Hammamiya (Brunton and Caton Thompson 1928), Mostagedda (Brunton 1937), and Matmar (Brunton 1948)], where a number of small cemeteries, containing in total about 600 tombs, and forty poorly documented settlement sites are known. […] Several animal burials occurred in Badarian cemeteries, among them bovines and caprids. These burials showed no obvious pattern, nor were they related to individual tombs. The habit of individual animal burials continued in the Naqada period, and must have had a ritual meaning which did not seem directly related to the human burials. Possibly the burial of animals was related to religious festivals, which could refer to funerary ideology apart from the death of individuals.” §REF§ (Hendrickx et al. 2010: 21-23) Hendrickx, Stan, Dirk Huyge, and Willeke Wendrich, 2010. \"Worship without writing.\" Egyptian Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 15-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EMWKRZB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EMWKRZB </b></a> §REF§ “Within the valley itself enduring attachments between people and place appear to have been established primarily through elaborate funerary rites, collective feasting and repeated use of burial grounds, while habitation sites—on current evidence—remained for the most part fluid and ephemeral in nature (Reinold 2001; cf. Wengrow 2006: 49–50, 63–71).” §REF§ (Wengrow et al. 2014: 104) Wengrow, David, Michael Dee, Sarah Foster, Alice Stevenson, and Christopher Bronk Ramsey, 2014.\"Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: A Prehistoric Perspective on Egypt's Place in Africa.\" Antiquity, 88(339), pp. 95-111. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KT4AIPJ6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KT4AIPJ6 </b></a> §REF§<br>“Religious belief systems are often related to notions of an afterlife and reflected in burial customs. The efforts to provide the deceased with grave goods, tombs, or grave markers are the material manifestation of such beliefs, as well as the social structure of the society of the living. […] The Badari culture was originally identified in the region of Badari [Qaw el- Kebir, Hammamiya (Brunton and Caton Thompson 1928), Mostagedda (Brunton 1937), and Matmar (Brunton 1948)], where a number of small cemeteries, contain- ing in total about 600 tombs, and forty poorly documented settlement sites are known. […] Several animal burials occurred in Badarian cemeteries, among them bovines and caprids. These burials showed no obvious pattern, nor were they related to individual tombs. The habit of individual animal burials continued in the Naqada period, and must have had a ritual meaning which did not seem directly related to the human burials. Possibly the burial of animals was related to religious festivals, which could refer to funerary ideology apart from the death of individuals.” §REF§ (Hendrickx et al. 2010: 21-23) Hendrickx, Stan, Dirk Huyge, and Willeke Wendrich, 2010. \"Worship without writing.\" Egyptian Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 15-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EMWKRZB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EMWKRZB </b></a> §REF§ “Within the valley itself enduring attachments between people and place appear to have been established primarily through elaborate funerary rites, collective feasting and repeated use of burial grounds, while habitation sites—on current evidence—remained for the most part fluid and ephemeral in nature (Reinold 2001; cf. Wengrow 2006: 49–50, 63–71).” §REF§ (Wengrow et al. 2014: 104) Wengrow, David, Michael Dee, Sarah Foster, Alice Stevenson, and Christopher Bronk Ramsey, 2014.\"Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: A Prehistoric Perspective on Egypt's Place in Africa.\" Antiquity, 88(339), pp. 95-111. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KT4AIPJ6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KT4AIPJ6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1085, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 285, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Greco-Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In addition, the immigrants were given the opportunity through the interpretatio Graeca of viewing their popular Greek gods in equivalents to the Egyptian gods. Thus, Zeus was the Egyptian Amun, Aphrodite the Egyptian Isis. The cult of the Graeco-Egyptian god Serapis, created by Ptolemy I or at least strongly promoted by the dynasty, became of great importance for the leadership elite of the kingdom and their identification with it.”§REF§(Pfeiffer 2008, 388) Pfieffer, Stefan. 2008. ‘The God Serapis, His Cult and the Beginnings of the Ruler Cult in Ptolemaic Egypt’. In Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his world. Edited by Paul Mekechnie and Philipe Guillame. Boston: Mnemosyne. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CR5TFWWS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CR5TFWWS </b></a>§REF§“The king was double-faceted, but the Greek and Egyptian aspects were not separate. The idea behind legitimation, ideology, and propaganda was the same for both constituencies but is ‘‘expressed in forms and conventions that render the idea understandable for the other segment of the population’’. The Egyptian version of the Ptolemaic dynastic cult was truly imbedded in Egyptian tradition, and the king’s initiative was manifestly supported by the Egyptian elite.” §REF§(Vandorpe 2010, 164) Vandorpe, Katelijn. 2010. ‘The Ptolemaic Period’. In A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Edited by Alan Lloyd. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBPW8S6G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FBPW8S6G </b></a>§REF§“The Greeks and Egyptians came to identify their respective deity in the other’s religion: Apollo as Horus, Hermes as Thoth, Zeus as Amon, and Aphrodite as Hathor. Over time the Greeks influenced the Egyptians, and the Egyptians influenced the Greeks, and new cults emerged in Egypt.” §REF§ (Wellendorf 2008, 35) Wellendorf, Heather. 2008. Ptolemy’s Political Tool: Religion’. Studa Antiqua. Vol 6. Pp. 33-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RVZXCCR6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RVZXCCR6 </b></a>§REF§ “When Egypt became the kingdom of the Ptolemies, they found a thousand-year-old culture with a flourishing religiosity focused on the Pharaoh. In order to establish a stable power base in the country, the foreign rulers had to respond to the needs of their Egyptian subjects, who made up most of the population of their kingdom.” §REF§(Pfeiffer 2008, 387) Pfieffer, Stefan. 2008. ‘The God Serapis, His Cult and the Beginnings of the Ruler Cult in Ptolemaic Egypt’. In Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his world. Edited by Paul Mekechnie and Philipe Guillame. Boston: Mnemosyne. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CR5TFWWS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CR5TFWWS </b></a>§REF§“Greeks and Egyptians were the two largest ethnic groups […] and they both left a deep mark on Ptolemaic Egypt.” §REF§(Vandorpe 2010, 176) Vandorpe, Katelijn. 2010. ‘The Ptolemaic Period’. In A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Edited by Alan Lloyd. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBPW8S6G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FBPW8S6G </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1086, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 283, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Early Dynastic Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“the mortuary cult was also of great importance to non-royalty, and the elements of royal burials were emulated in more modest form in the exclusive cemetery at North Saqqara. […] The architectural evidence of Early Dynastic Egyptian cults (of unknown deities) is much less impressive than the contemporaneous remains of temples in southern Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, town cult centres in Early Dynastic Egypt may have served to integrate society in towns and nomes in a shared belief system that was perhaps of more immediate significance to the lives of the local peoples than the mortuary cults in royal and elite cemeteries.”§REF§ (Bard in Shaw 2003: 72, 76, 78) Bard, Kathryn, 2003. “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686BC)”, in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.57-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQESRMD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQESRMD7 </b></a> §REF§<br>[T]he main Early Dynastic cult temples at Abydos, Hierakonpolis, and Elephantine have not yet been located and excavated, but what evidence there is points to the existence of cult temple compounds within towns. Such temples served a different function from those associated with the funerary complexes, which were located outside the towns. The architectural evidence of Early Dynastic Egyptian cults (of unknown deities) is much less impressive than the contemporaneous remains of temples in southern Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, town cult centres in Early Dynastic Egypt may have served to integrate society in towns and nomes in a shared belief system that was perhaps of more immediate significance to the lives of the local peoples than the mortuary cults in royal and elite cemeteries.”§REF§ (Bard in Shaw 2003: 78) Bard, Kathryn, 2003. “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686BC)”, in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.57-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQESRMD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQESRMD7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1087, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” §REF§(Teeter 2013, 13) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§“Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” §REF§(Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ “Pharaoh worshipped the god, and the populace worshipped pharaoh; that was the system, and there were few concessions within the system to humanity.” §REF§ (Reeves 2004, 7) Reeves, Nicholas. 2004. ‘Who was Akhenaten?’. Fitzwilliam Museum Lecture. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DABD2XP5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DABD2XP5 </b></a> §REF§“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§(Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1088, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 285, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Greco-Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“When Egypt became the kingdom of the Ptolemies, they found a thousand-year-old culture with a flourishing religiosity focused on the Pharaoh. In order to establish a stable power base in the country, the foreign rulers had to respond to the needs of their Egyptian subjects, who made up most of the population of their kingdom.” §REF§(Pfeiffer 2008, 387) Pfieffer, Stefan. 2008. ‘The God Serapis, His Cult and the Beginnings of the Ruler Cult in Ptolemaic Egypt’. In Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his world. Edited by Paul Mekechnie and Philipe Guillame. Boston: Mnemosyne. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CR5TFWWS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CR5TFWWS </b></a>§REF§“Greeks and Egyptians were the two largest ethnic groups […] and they both left a deep mark on Ptolemaic Egypt.” §REF§(Vandorpe 2010, 176) Vandorpe, Katelijn. 2010. ‘The Ptolemaic Period’. In A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Edited by Alan Lloyd. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBPW8S6G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FBPW8S6G </b></a>§REF§ “In addition, the immigrants were given the opportunity through the interpretatio Graeca of viewing their popular Greek gods in equivalents to the Egyptian gods. Thus, Zeus was the Egyptian Amun, Aphrodite the Egyptian Isis. The cult of the Graeco-Egyptian god Serapis, created by Ptolemy I or at least strongly promoted by the dynasty, became of great importance for the leadership elite of the kingdom and their identification with it.”§REF§(Pfeiffer 2008, 388) Pfieffer, Stefan. 2008. ‘The God Serapis, His Cult and the Beginnings of the Ruler Cult in Ptolemaic Egypt’. In Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his world. Edited by Paul Mekechnie and Philipe Guillame. Boston: Mnemosyne. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CR5TFWWS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CR5TFWWS </b></a>§REF§“The king was double-faceted, but the Greek and Egyptian aspects were not separate. The idea behind legitimation, ideology, and propaganda was the same for both constituencies but is ‘‘expressed in forms and conventions that render the idea understandable for the other segment of the population’’. The Egyptian version of the Ptolemaic dynastic cult was truly imbedded in Egyptian tradition, and the king’s initiative was manifestly supported by the Egyptian elite.” §REF§(Vandorpe 2010, 164) Vandorpe, Katelijn. 2010. ‘The Ptolemaic Period’. In A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Edited by Alan Lloyd. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBPW8S6G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FBPW8S6G </b></a>§REF§“The Greeks and Egyptians came to identify their respective deity in the other’s religion: Apollo as Horus, Hermes as Thoth, Zeus as Amon, and Aphrodite as Hathor. Over time the Greeks influenced the Egyptians, and the Egyptians influenced the Greeks, and new cults emerged in Egypt.” §REF§ (Wellendorf 2008, 35) Wellendorf, Heather. 2008. Ptolemy’s Political Tool: Religion’. Studa Antiqua. Vol 6. Pp. 33-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RVZXCCR6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RVZXCCR6 </b></a>§REF§ “Greeks and Egyptians were the two largest ethnic groups […] and they both left a deep mark on Ptolemaic Egypt.” §REF§(Vandorpe 2010, 176) Vandorpe, Katelijn. 2010. ‘The Ptolemaic Period’. In A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Edited by Alan Lloyd. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBPW8S6G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FBPW8S6G </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1089, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 286, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Naqada Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The burials in Hierakonpolis, dated to early Naqada II (c. 3600 bce) and III periods, show many features which provide information on religious or ritual activities and beliefs.” §REF§ (Hendrickx et al. 2010: 21-23) Hendrickx, Stan, Dirk Huyge, and Willeke Wendrich, 2010. \"Worship without writing.\" Egyptian Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 15-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EMWKRZB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EMWKRZB </b></a> §REF§ “Nevertheless, to say that mortuary rituals were ‘fixed’ is an overstatement as no two Predynastic burials are identical. Rather than there being a universal set of rules governing arrangement, there seem to have been general principles that permitted an improvisatory performance of burial.” §REF§ (Stevenson 2009: 5) Stevenson, Alice, 2009, Predynastic Burials. In Willeke Wendrich (ed.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, (Los Angeles: University of California Press), pp.1-10. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T23ZGHBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T23ZGHBU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1090, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 89, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Coptic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It has been stated recently that the Ismāʿīlī Shiite Fatimid elite ruled over a population whose Muslim minority was preponderantly Sunnī but whose overwhelming majority consisted of Christians of various denominations, with significant Jewish communities spread all over the territory. Because of the lack of sufficient statistics covering the entire period and all parts of the Empire, however, different views of these proportions cannot be dismissed, these ranging from an estimate of the Coptic community alone as amounting to some 40% of the total population of Egypt, to views that postulate a Muslim majority well before the Fatimid conquest. Whatever the real demography may have been, and despite the Fatimids’ endeavours to regulate all aspects of public life by Ismailism and its legal system, this Muslim population remained predominantly Sunnī throughout the Fatimid period and its large proportion, at least in the Nile Delta and in the urban setting of the Cairo metropolis, would regularly prevent the Fatimid authorities from giving priority to the interests of their non-Muslim subjects.”§REF§ (den Heijer, Lev, and Swanson 2015, 334) den Heijer, Johannes, Lev, Yaacov, and Swanson, Mark. 2015. The Fatimid Empire and its Population. Medieval Encounters. Vol. 21. Pp. 323-344. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HDSM663W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HDSM663W </b></a>§REF§ “Ibn Ḥawqal explicitly states that the population of tenth-century Egypt was Coptic; he first and foremost refers to the fact that they were Christians, but the inescapable impression is that he also meant that they constituted the majority of the population.” §REF§ (Lev 2015, 291) Lev, Yaacov. 2015. The Fatimid Caliphs, the Copts, and the Coptic Church. Medieval Encounters.Vol. 21. Pp. 390-410. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M6XJ7EJQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M6XJ7EJQ </b></a>§REF§ “Christians […] may have still constituted the largest group in the city […]” §REF§ (Talmon-Heller and Frenkel 2019, 205) Talmon-Heller, Daniella, and Frenkel, Miriam. 2019. Religious Innovation under Fatimid Rule: Jewish and Muslim Rites in Eleventh-Century Jerusalem. Medieval Encounters.Vol.25. Pp. 203-226. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMFK29H5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SMFK29H5 </b></a>§REF§“Christians still were a large part of the population in all Fatimid territories.” §REF§ (den Heijer, Lev, and Swanson 2015, 325) den Heijer, Johannes, Lev, Yaacov, and Swanson, Mark. 2015. The Fatimid Empire and its Population. Medieval Encounters. Vol. 21. Pp. 323-344. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HDSM663W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HDSM663W </b></a>§REF§ “The Jerusalemite historian and geographer al-Muqaddasī […] famously complains that Christians outnumber the Muslims in the city”§REF§ (Talmon-Heller and Frenkel 2019, 205) Talmon-Heller, Daniella, and Frenkel, Miriam. 2019. Religious Innovation under Fatimid Rule: Jewish and Muslim Rites in Eleventh-Century Jerusalem. Medieval Encounters.Vol.25. Pp. 203-226. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMFK29H5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SMFK29H5 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1091, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 286, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Naqada Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The situation is quite different at Hierakonpolis, where the only religious center known for the Naqada II period has been discovered. It is the earliest of its kind in Egypt (Friedman 1996, 2003). […] The temple was used for about five centuries and underwent at least three major renovations during that period. The debris from ceremonial activities was collected in rubbish pits just outside the enclosure wall and provides unique information on religious practices. […] The habit of individual animal burials continued in the Naqada period, and must have had a ritual meaning which did not seem directly related to the human burials. Possibly the burial of animals was related to religious festivals, which could refer to funerary ideology apart from the death of individuals. […] All in all, society was becoming more complex, with the development of local and regional elites, the latter at least from the very beginning of the Naqada II period onwards. The pottery found in the tombs was also present in the settlements and was not specially made for funerary purposes. Most cemetery pottery had been used prior to the interment. However, settlement ceramics showed a greater variety, since quite a number of types belonging to rough “utility wares” were not or hardly represented in the cemeteries. This seems to indicate a vision of the afterlife which presupposes the ready availability of consumption goods, rather than as a replication of daily life, in which tasks such as food pro- duction and processing were required. […] The burials in Hierakonpolis, dated to early Naqada II (c. 3600 bce) and III periods, show many features which provide information on religious or ritual activities and beliefs.” §REF§ (Hendrickx et al. 2010: 21-23) Hendrickx, Stan, Dirk Huyge, and Willeke Wendrich, 2010. \"Worship without writing.\" Egyptian Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 15-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EMWKRZB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EMWKRZB </b></a> §REF§ “Another ritual aspect can be seen in the presence of amulets or figurines made of ivory, bone, or shells in Predynastic burials. For example, in Grave 271 (early Naqada II Period) in the Main Cemetery at Naqada, four ivory figurines that formed a line were found in the side of the grave pit. Although the exact details of ritual ideology are still obscure due to the limitation of suitable evidence, these amulets or figurines indicated the presence of some form of ritual ideology for burial.” §REF§ (Kuronuma 2016: 36) Kuronuma, Taichi, 2016. “The Placement of the Predynastic Grave Goods and Its Role in Mortuary Context: A Case Study of the Cemeteries at Naqada.” In Julia M. Chyla, Joanna Dêbowska-Ludwin, Karolina Rosińska-Balik, and Carl Walsh (eds.), Current Research in Egyptology 2016: Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Symposium, vol. 17, (Oxford: Oxbow Books), pp. 22–39. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/85TEC4WZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 85TEC4WZ </b></a> §REF§ “Nevertheless, to say that mortuary rituals were ‘fixed’ is an overstatement as no two Predynastic burials are identical. Rather than there being a universal set of rules governing arrangement, there seem to have been general principles that permitted an improvisatory performance of burial.”§REF§ (Stevenson 2009: 2-5) Stevenson, Alice, 2009, Predynastic Burials. In Willeke Wendrich (ed.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, (Los Angeles: University of California Press), pp.1-10. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T23ZGHBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T23ZGHBU </b></a> §REF§<br>“The situation is quite different at Hierakonpolis, where the only religious center known for the Naqada II period has been discovered. It is the earliest of its kind in Egypt (Friedman 1996, 2003). It consisted of a large oval courtyard in front of a shrine, which has not yet been fully excavated. The massive façade of the shrine consisted of huge wood pillars, possibly cedar logs imported from the Lebanon. The temple was used for about five centuries and underwent at least three major renovations during that period. The debris from ceremonial activities was collected in rubbish pits just outside the enclosure wall and provides unique information on religious practices.” §REF§ (Hendrickx et al. 2010: 21) Hendrickx, Stan, Dirk Huyge, and Willeke Wendrich, 2010. \"Worship without writing.\" Egyptian Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 15-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EMWKRZB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EMWKRZB </b></a> §REF§ “Nevertheless, to say that mortuary rituals were ‘fixed’ is an overstatement as no two Predynastic burials are identical. Rather than there being a universal set of rules governing arrangement, there seem to have been general principles that permitted an improvisatory performance of burial.”§REF§ (Stevenson 2009: 2-5) Stevenson, Alice, 2009, Predynastic Burials. In Willeke Wendrich (ed.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, (Los Angeles: University of California Press), pp.1-10. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T23ZGHBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T23ZGHBU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1092, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 286, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Naqada Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“From Badarian times onward, great care, attention, and reverence was conferred upon the disposal of the dead. There is the general tendency to interpret these mortuary contexts as simply being for the benefit of the deceased and their afterlife (e.g., Midant-Reynes 2000: 187; Spencer 1982: 29), but the social significance of these practices for the surviving community should also be acknowledged. With regard to the latter, scholars have interpreted Naqadan funerary rituals in terms of competitive status display (e.g., Hoffman 1979: 327), identity expression, and social memory formation (e.g., Stevenson 2007; Wengrow 2006).” §REF§ (Stevenson 2009: 3) Stevenson, Alice, 2009, Predynastic Burials. In Willeke Wendrich (ed.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, (Los Angeles: University of California Press), pp.1-10. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T23ZGHBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T23ZGHBU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1093, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Note that the following quote refers to Sunni, Shia, and Sufi adherents of Islam in the Mamluk Empire; the quote seems to imply that Shia Islam was least widespread among these, and perhaps that Sufi Islam was the most widespread. “Early Mamluk Egypt harboured a wide spectrum of Islamic religious expression, a range which included the remnants of Isma'ill Shi’ism, but now increasingly Sunnism and Sufism in all their variety. Less than a century preceding the Mamluk ascent to power, Egypt under the aegis of the Fatimid caliphate had been, if perhaps only nominally, an Isma'ill Shi’i state. While it may be that the Isma'ilism of the Fatimids had never put down deep roots among the Egyptian populace as a whole, pockets of Shi’ism remained, especially, perhaps, in areas of Upper Egypt, at least until the early fourteenth century. […] By the thirteenth century Sufism had become widespread among the Egyptian population. […] Although it was not the only Sufi order in early Mamluk Egypt (the Rifa'iyya, Badawiyya and others also found adherents), the popularity of the Shadhiliyya is probably to be attributed to its flexibility and lack of real institutional structure, a characteristic which allowed it to adapt to changing conditions and embrace a variety of more local popular practices and beliefs.” §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 266-267) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1094, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Note that the following quote refers to Sunni, Shia, and Sufi adherents of Islam in the Mamluk Empire. “Early Mamluk Egypt harboured a wide spectrum of Islamic religious expression, a range which included the remnants of Isma'ill Shi’ism, but now increasingly Sunnism and Sufism in all their variety. Less than a century preceding the Mamluk ascent to power, Egypt under the aegis of the Fatimid caliphate had been, if perhaps only nominally, an Isma'ill Shi’i state. While it may be that the Isma'ilism of the Fatimids had never put down deep roots among the Egyptian populace as a whole, pockets of Shi’ism remained, especially, perhaps, in areas of Upper Egypt, at least until the early fourteenth century. […] By the thirteenth century Sufism had become widespread among the Egyptian population. […] Although it was not the only Sufi order in early Mamluk Egypt (the Rifa'iyya, Badawiyya and others also found adherents), the popularity of the Shadhiliyya is probably to be attributed to its flexibility and lack of real institutional structure, a characteristic which allowed it to adapt to changing conditions and embrace a variety of more local popular practices and beliefs.” §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 266-267) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1095, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Within Ayyubid and Mamluk Egypt, Sunni Islam took its final form, and from it, most African Muslims drew in various degrees their principles of conduct and their framework of thought”. §REF§ (Garcin 1984: 371) Garcin, J. C. 1984. Egypt and the Muslim World. In D.T. Niane (ed.), General History of Africa IV. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century (pp.371). University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6K2UKW85\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6K2UKW85 </b></a>.§REF§<br>The following quote suggests that Coptic Christians may have been quite a large minority; add to this the fact that there were also Shia and Jewish minorities, and it seems reasonable to infer that Sunni were not the vast majority, but either just over half of the population or even a sizeable minority themselves. \"Despite the clear Muslim orientation of the political structure, the Egyptian Christians or Copts were still very numerous and continued, as under the Shi’ite caliphs, to bear a great part of the administrative burden, inheriting a bureaucratic technique which had survived the change of rulers.\" §REF§ (Garcin 1984: 375-6) Garcin, J. C. 1984. Egypt and the Muslim World. In D.T. Niane (ed.), General History of Africa IV. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century (pp.371 ). University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6K2UKW85\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6K2UKW85 </b></a>.§REF§ “Pouzet notes the presence of religious minorities in the area including various Shi‘i groups, Christians, and Jews, and he then turns to issues of religion and political power. For both the Ayyubids and Mamluks, unity and the defense of Islam against the Mongols in the East and Christians in the west was paramount. Invasions and threats of invasion were eminent features of politics, religion, and life in general, and these hostilities sometimes made life hard for Christians and Jews living as protected people among the Muslims of Damascus”. §REF§ Homerin 2005:6. Homerin, Th. Emil. 2005.“The Study of Islam within Mamluk Domains.” Mamluk Studies Review IX (2):1-30. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZRJ67JBK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZRJ67JBK </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 1096, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Note that the following quote refers to Sunni, Shia, and Sufi adherents of Islam in the Mamluk Empire; the quote seems to imply that Shia Islam was least widespread among these, and perhaps that Sufi Islam was the most widespread. “Early Mamluk Egypt harboured a wide spectrum of Islamic religious expression, a range which included the remnants of Isma'ill Shi’ism, but now increasingly Sunnism and Sufism in all their variety. Less than a century preceding the Mamluk ascent to power, Egypt under the aegis of the Fatimid caliphate had been, if perhaps only nominally, an Isma'ill Shi’i state. While it may be that the Isma'ilism of the Fatimids had never put down deep roots among the Egyptian populace as a whole, pockets of Shi’ism remained, especially, perhaps, in areas of Upper Egypt, at least until the early fourteenth century. […] By the thirteenth century Sufism had become widespread among the Egyptian population. […] Although it was not the only Sufi order in early Mamluk Egypt (the Rifa'iyya, Badawiyya and others also found adherents), the popularity of the Shadhiliyya is probably to be attributed to its flexibility and lack of real institutional structure, a characteristic which allowed it to adapt to changing conditions and embrace a variety of more local popular practices and beliefs.” §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 266-267) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1097, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt was a Sunni country, and hostilities against the Shi’I community occurred during the Ikhshidid period.” §REF§ (Lev 1997, 126) Lev, Yaacov. ‘Regime, Army, and Society in Medieval Egypt, 9th-12th Centuries’. In War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean 7th to 15th Centuries. Edited by Michael Whitby. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MFR3XX79\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MFR3XX79 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1098, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“During this period, the government of Egypt was in effect a theocracy, supreme political authority being vested in the god Amun himself.” §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 326) Taylor, John. 2000. ‘The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)’. In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RM7U7FZK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RM7U7FZK </b></a> §REF§“Although increased contact with foreign lands and customs during the New Kingdom made Egypt a cosmopolitan society with a mixed population, foreign settlers still underwent a process of Egyptianization, the main manifestations of which were the adoption of Egyptian names, dress, and burial customs.” §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 334) Taylor, John. 2000. ‘The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)’. In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RM7U7FZK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RM7U7FZK </b></a> §REF§“" }, { "id": 1099, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "In the last millennium CE, a number of change occurred in Egyptian religion. They include: 1. A renewed \"quest for new religious solutions which emphasized individual salvation. Generally, people were perhaps less optimistic that a virtuous life would bring them a blessed eternity, and more reliance was placed on the gods as a source of comfort. Traditional preparations for the afterlife continued, but people were also determined to enjoy their daily pleasures while they were still alive.\" §REF§David, R. 2002. \"Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt\" p. 312. London: Penguin. §REF§ 3. An \"increased association between the temples and lay people. One noticeable feature was an increase in the custom of setting up personal statues inside the temples so that the owners could benefit from the regular rituals for the gods (which were the same as those performed in earlier periods), and thus receive sustenance from the divine food offerings. It also emphasized the owner's devotion to the god, and gave him a claim on the deity's attention. This tradition emphasized the fact that the gods were now regarded as better guarantors of individual postmortem protection than the age-old mortuary cults.\" §REF§David, R. 2002. \"Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt\" p. 313. London: Penguin. §REF§ Moreover, the first millennium BCE was characterised by a \"deep-rooted revival of things past that affected many aspects of Egypt's court culture, religion, script, literature, art, architecture, and burial practices.\" §REF§Taylor, J. 2003. The Third Intermediate Period. In Shaw, I. (ed) \"The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt\" pp. 339-340. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§" }, { "id": 1100, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Official temple cults, as well as popular religiosity, were shaped during the period which begun with the emergence of the united kingdom in the 8th century BC (Ch. 111.4, IV.2.1) by the complex interactions of the surviving traditions of Egyptian cults implanted during the New Kingdom, the surviving traditions of native cults (cf. Ch. III.2.1, end) which were thoroughly Egyptianized in the New Kingdom, the traditions of Egyptian as well as of native popular piety, and finally, the cults encountered in Egypt and adopted as a whole or in part from the early 8th century BC onwards.”§REF§ Torok, Laszlo. 1997. The Kingdom of Kush. Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Brill, Leiden. Netherlands. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ACUM7N4G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ACUM7N4G </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1101, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“There is no evidence at all that the Hyksos suppressed Egyptian religion and culture; in fact, they admired and adopted both” […] The Nubians admired the Egyptian culture and adopted many of their gods and aspects of their culture. […] Van de Mieroop observes that \"the leaders of this community sought to portray themselves as true kings, queens, and noblemen and looked to Egypt for inspiration\". They adopted Egyptian dress, mannerisms, and worshiped Egyptian gods. […] Literature was still written and religious rites observed. §REF§ (Mark, 2016) Mark, Joshua. ‘Middle Kingdom of Egypt’. World History Encyclopedia. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PNAJZXHI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PNAJZXHI </b></a>§REF§“Rulers of the kingdoms of Avaris and Thebes alike were devoting monuments to Egyptian gods venerated in cultic centers on the territory they controlled. In the case of the rulers of Avaris, these were Seth of Avaris, Hathor, Wadjet, Sobek, Ra.” §REF§ (Ilin-Tomich 2016, 11) Ilin-Tomich, Alexander. ‘Second Intermediate Period’. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKTNWR92\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KKTNWR92 </b></a>§REF§ “Central to the Egyptians‘ views of kingship was the concept of ma’at which, whilst sometimes translatable as ‘justice’ or ‘truth’, is a term whose meaning goes far beyond legal fairness or factual accuracy. It was used to refer to the ideal state of the universe and society, and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Although of eternal existence its operation in the world of men was the responsibility of the king, and as such must have acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power: a ‘natural’ morality in the place of institutional checks.” […] “Divine kingship is the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs its cult was given monumental expression of grandeur unsurpassed anywhere in the ancient Near East. Yet despite its all-pervading influence in Egyptian civilization it is not easy to present a coherent account of its doctrines […]” “In Egypt provincial aspirations were normally contained within a system centered on a single royal government, whose paramount authority was expressed through the doctrines of divine kingship, containing theological elements derived from various parts of the country, through monumental building and through statue cults at provincial temples.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 72-74, 103) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§ “According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were ‘religious to excess, beyond any other nation in the world.’ This can be seen in the way that theology was incorporated into every aspect of their culture, a tradition that continued to be a feature of Egyptian civilization for more than 3,000 years.” […] “Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” […]“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 13-14, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1102, "polity": { "id": 358, "name": "sa_rashidun_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Hijaz", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 661 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "o_h_p", "widespread_religion": { "id": 89, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Coptic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the middle decades of the seventh century, the Arabian conquerors under Umar I and his Umayyad successors supplanted the Roman Empire in the southern and eastern Mediterranean and the Sasanian Empire in Iraq, Iran and points east. In so doing, they entered more fully into a world where various forms of Christianity and Zoroastrianism were the dominant religious traditions, alongside various types of Judaism and numerous smaller religious belief systems.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 2) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§“One reason for the Umayyad government’s relatively easy policy toward Christians (and other non-Muslims) may have been the simple fact that, in the seventh century and well into the eighth, the Arabian Believers or Muslims were a decided minority, indeed for long a small minority, in the lands they ruled, which was populated in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt overwhelmingly by Christians, and in Iran, by Zoroastrians. It was only in the tenth century, probably that Muslims became the majority of the population, via a gradual process of conversion.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 33) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§<br>“One reason for the Umayyad government’s relatively easy policy toward Christians (and other non-Muslims) may have been the simple fact that, in the seventh century and well into the eighth, the Arabian Believers or Muslims were a decided minority, indeed for long a small minority, in the lands they ruled, which was populated in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt overwhelmingly by Christians, and in Iran, by Zoroastrians. It was only in the tenth century, probably that Muslims became the majority of the population, via a gradual process of conversion.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 33) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1103, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“This Amyrtaeus is the founder and only king of the 28th Dynasty of Egypt and, although he is remembered as the Egyptian king who drove the Persians out of the country, he actually only controlled the Delta region of Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt remained in the hands of the Persians. […] Even under Persian rule, there was no disruption in Egyptian religion - contrary to the claims made by Herodotus and other Greek writers - and the Persians, in fact, encouraged Egyptian culture and religion.” §REF§ (Mark, 2016) Mark, Joshua. ‘Late Period of Ancient Egypt’. World History Encyclopedia. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PNAJZXHI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PNAJZXHI </b></a>§REF§” “Devotion to local gods is easily paralleled earlier, but its prominence in the Late Period is very marked, originating, no doubt, in the political fragmentation that was endemic after the collapse of the New Kingdom. A corollary of this situation is the marked tendency for the main focus of personal devotion to become the main city deity, who thus acquires the omnipotence and omniscience of the traditional great gods of the pantheon. This phenomenon generated, in turn, an intense sense of the imminence of the divine presence, which is probably a major factor in the development of animal cults, one of the distinctive religious features of the Late Period. Devotion to this immediately present deity was naturally accompanied by a powerful conviction of the dependence of man on divine favour, which is frequently expressed in sculpture through statues of individuals supporting and offering images of their local god.” §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 383-384) Lloyd, Alan. ‘The Late Period’. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§“Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” […] “A large percentage of the elite population, both male and female, served as some category of priest/priestess/temple musician. Even among the upper ranks, these individuals married and had children. Part-time priests reverted to their other occupations when off duty. This combination of a quasi-secular with a priestly title is a reflection of the way that religion was embedded into the overall society. […] Texts and the archeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society - those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to those of the elite.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14, 22) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§There also appears to have been a steady influx of people, as well as linguistic and cultural influences, leading to the creation of a distinctly cosmopolitan and multicultural society from at least the New Kingdom onwards. The apparent tolerance of foreigners within Egyptian society was nevertheless accompanied by a tremendous continuity in terms of the core values and beliefs of the indigenous population (so far as we can tell, given the bias of surviving data towards the elite end of society).” §REF§ (Shaw 2000, 323) Shaw, Ian. ‘Egypt and the Outside World’. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§<br>“This Amyrtaeus is the founder and only king of the 28th Dynasty of Egypt and, although he is remembered as the Egyptian king who drove the Persians out of the country, he actually only controlled the Delta region of Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt remained in the hands of the Persians. […] Even under Persian rule, there was no disruption in Egyptian religion - contrary to the claims made by Herodotus and other Greek writers - and the Persians, in fact, encouraged Egyptian culture and religion.” §REF§ (Mark, 2016) Mark, Joshua. ‘Late Period of Ancient Egypt’. World History Encyclopedia. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PNAJZXHI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PNAJZXHI </b></a>§REF§” Such devotion to local gods is easily paralleled earlier, but its prominence in the Late Period is very marked, originating, no doubt, in the political fragmentation that was endemic after the collapse of the New Kingdom. A corollary of this situation is the marked tendency for the main focus of personal devotion to become the main city deity, who thus acquires the omnipotence and omniscience of the traditional great gods of the pantheon. This phenomenon generated, in turn, an intense sense of the imminence of the divine presence, which is probably a major factor in the development of animal cults, one of the distinctive religious features of the Late Period. Devotion to this immediately present deity was naturally accompanied by a powerful conviction of the dependence of man on divine favour, which is frequently expressed in sculpture through statues of individuals supporting and offering images of their local god.” §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 383-384) Lloyd, Alan. ‘The Late Period’. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§“Egypt was profoundly polytheistic, and by the New Kingdom and later there were thousands of deities.” […] “A large percentage of the elite population, both male and female, served as some category of priest/priestess/temple musician. Even among the upper ranks, these individuals married and had children. Part-time priests reverted to their other occupations when off duty. This combination of a quasi-secular with a priestly title is a reflection of the way that religion was embedded into the overall society. […] Texts and the archeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society - those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to those of the elite.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14, 22) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1104, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 146, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Orokaiva Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "’The belief in ghosts and spirits is a predominant characteristic of the northern native. In almost every tribe I have observed the propitiation of family ghosts with individual offerings of food by ordinary persons to secure the vitality of their food supply, and by sorcerers to stimulate their charms. Ghosts are invoked during ceremonies by divination to reveal crimes and criminals. Food offerings to ghosts are made during death feasts and during certain initiation rites. The house of initiation and the paraphernalia of the dance are believed to have spiritual powers, and when the paraphernalia are thrown into the river at the completion of the rites, they are invoked to smite the enemies of the dancers.’§REF§ Chinnery, E. W. P., and Alfred C. (Alfred Cort) Haddon 1917. “Five New Religious Cults In British New Guinea”, 448 Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ACAXTI6G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ACAXTI6G </b></a>§REF§ ’The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the \"spirits of the dead\" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult.'§REF§ Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V2AK2FR7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V2AK2FR7 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1105, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "1", "degree_of_prevalence": "v_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 156, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Iban Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The personnel of Iban religion, the experts, are those individuals who have specific roles in relation to rice cultivation, augur, ritual celebrations and the ordering of society. They act as a channel between the world of immediate experience and its spirit antecedents and influences. The leading exponents of these roles in Iban society are four, although one or more functions may be vested in the same person. They are the tuai burong or augur, the tuai rumah or village headman, the lemembang or ritual incantation specialist, and, lastly, the manang-shaman or ‘healer’.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 59) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§<br>The following quote implies that Iban religious practice cannot be separated from Iban cultural and agricultural life, so it is presumably 100% of the population in this period. “One of the most remarkable aspects of Iban existence is the way in which religion is almost synonymous with an ordered life and ritual enters into most activities. As Freeman (1955a, 28, para.59) says, the Iban are ‘an extremely religious people’. However, Iban religion is neither solemn nor set apart from the routine activities of daily life and it finds its principal expression in agricultural practice and the social order.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 55) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§ “Religious beliefs and behavior pervade every part of Iban life. In their interpretations of their world, nature, and society, they refer to remote creator gods who brought the elements and structured order into existence; the bird-god SENGALANG BURONG who directs their lives through messages borne by his seven sons-in-law, and the popular gods who provide models for living. Iban religion is a product of a holistic approach to life, in which attention is paid to all events in the waking and sleeping states. The religion involves an all-embracing causality, born of the Iban conviction that \"nothing happens without cause.\" The pervasiveness of their religion has sensitized them to every part of their world, and created an elaborate otherworld (SEBAYAN), in which everything is vested with the potential for sensate thought and action. In Iban beliefs and narratives trees talk, crotons walk, macaques become incubi, jars moan for lack of attention, and the sex of the human fetus is determined by a cricket, the metamorphized form of a god.” §REF§ (Sutlive, Beierle, 1995). Sutlive, Vison, Jr., Beierle, John. (1995) “Culture Summary for the Iban” in eHRAF World Cultures, Human Relations Area Files. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DAM9MCFQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DAM9MCFQ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 1106, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 39, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Lutheran Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"It is obviously true that the overwhelming majority of French men and women were Roman Catholic, at least 90% of a population of between 18 and 20 million people in this period. And it is also clear that French Calvinists, called Huguenots, made up the largest minority, maybe 8-10% of the population in 1589 (roughly 1.6 million people), though declining to about 6-7% by 1660 (see Philip Benedict, The Huguenot Population of France, 1600-1685 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1991). Maybe Ben Kaplan is right that in 17th-century France there were several thousand Jews in SW France, making up 0.1% of the population, but this group was so small and so secretive in their practice that neither French church, state, nor society was much concerned or even aware of them. Moreover, there may have been at least as many Lutherans in northern and eastern France at this time. [...] Finally, your categories of religions leaves out a significant portion of the population whose beliefs and practices were neither strictly Catholic nor Protestant, but hovered somewhere in-between (see Thierry Wanegffelen, Ni Rome ni Genève: Des fidèles entre deux chaires en France au XVIe siècle (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1997). This latter group is almost impossible to quantify[...].\"§REF§(Mack Holt, pers. comm., 2023)§REF§" }, { "id": 1107, "polity": { "id": 790, "name": "et_habesha", "long_name": "Habesha", "start_year": 801, "end_year": 1136 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "sm_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The second most widespread religion could be Judaism, and then the third most widespread religion would be Islam in this period.\"§REF§(Hewan Marye, 2023, pers. comm.)§REF§" }, { "id": 1108, "polity": { "id": 789, "name": "et_ethiopian_k_2", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom II", "start_year": 1621, "end_year": 1768 }, "year_from": 1621, "year_to": 1680, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB End date is approximate.\r\n\r\n\"This ephemeral success of the Jesuit missionaries implied the (intended) forceful conversion of the Copts, and the simultaneous interdiction, in a Susinyus' imperial decree, of the age-old liturgical Monophisite practices and doctrines (Abir 1980, pp. 221-222; Coulbeaux 1929, pp. 209-213). According to Jesuit accounts, Susinyus adopted Catholicism and died a baptized catholic. But, by then, the country was plunged in a raging civil and religious war that was brought to a close shortly after the expulsion of the Jesuits from Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 1634, the documented presence of the Catholic minority came to a sudden and abrupt end - still, it is more than likely that a unknown number of Portuguese stayed on, as traders and masons, for it was only with Yohannnes I, the grand-son of Susinyus, that the \"Franks\" - ferenji, i.e., the Portuguese - were forced to join the Monophysite Church (Ullendorf 1973, p. 76).\r\n\"In Susinyus' royal chronicle, the absence of information concerning the Portuguese and Jesuit influence in his court (and the various religious disputes), might be, in some way, explained by the assumption that this chronicle was rewritten during his successor's reign - Fasiladas. This was now a time of very strong and negative reaction against the catholic community and the Jesuit missionary group. It was this reaction, exemplified in the persecution, killing and exile of the Catholic converts and the Jesuit missionaries (Coulbeaux, 1929, pp. 245-246; Telles 1660, pp. 352- 366), that would also account for the ostentatious abandon of the \"catholic\" Susinyus' palace compound in Gorgora, the one that included the presently destroyed catholic church (Fasiladas' own palace, in Gondar, closely resembling a Portuguese medieval castle, was itself decorated with stone pillaged from Susinyus palace in Gorgora).\"§REF§(Ramos 1999, no page number) Ramos, M. J. 1999. The Invention of a Mission: the Brief Establishment of a Portuguese Catholic Minority in Renaissance Ethiopia. In Mucha, J. (ed.) Dominant Culture as Foreign Culture: Dominant Group(s) in the Eyes of the Minorities. Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5BQZRS7S/library§REF§" }, { "id": 1109, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": 1603, "year_to": 1665, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "2", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Small Christian minority until as far into the 17th century as the '60s.\r\n\r\n§REF§“In the 1630s, Tokugawa Iemitsu ordered all commoners to register with a Buddhist temple. The system was tightened in 1665 when the shogun ordered the temples to guarantee each person’s religious loyalty. Villagers were not allowed to change places of residence or even travel without permission. [...] It was [...] a means to enforce the ban on Christianity that had been inconsistently imposed on the population since the 1590s.”§REF§ (Gordon 2003, 15) Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WKE76S3C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WKE76S3C </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 1110, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"If in the Hellenistic times Jewish presence is recorded in hundreds of cities, one can hardly list more than a few tens in the early Middle Ages, not one of them displaying evidence of continuous presence of Jews from the first centuries C.E. to the Middle ages. The calamities that devastated the Christians did not of course pass over the Jews.\"§REF§(Bonfils 2012, 72) Bonfil, R. 2012. Continuity and Discontinuity (641-1204). In Robert Bonfil, Oded Irshai, Guy G. Stroumsa, Rina Talgam, eds., Jews of Byzantium: Dialectics of Minority and Majority Cultures (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 65-100. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CWSH42SX/library§REF§\r\n\r\n\"As a whole, until the middle of the tenth century there were not significant non-Orthodox mimorities on imperial territories, except for Jews\"§REF§(Chitwood 2020, 178) Chitwood, Z. 2020. Muslims and Non-Orthodox Christians in Byzantine Law until ca. 1100. In E. Cavanaugh (ed) Empire and Legal Thought: Ideas and Institutions from Antiquity to Modernity pp. 167-188. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8S7ZVM8H/library §REF§" }, { "id": 1111, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": null, "widespread_religion": { "id": 110, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Syriac Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Syrian migration into and settlement in the empire proceeded a bit differently, but it also involved a level of imperial toleration for churches that the ecclesiastical authorities in Constantinople considered heretical.”§REF§(Kolbaba 2013, no page number [ebook edition]) Kolbaba, Tia. 2013. Byzantines, Armenians, and Latins: Unleavened Bread and Heresy in the Tenth Century. In George E. Demacopoulos and Aristotle Papanikolaou (eds.) Orthodox Constructions of the West pp. 45-57. Fordham University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FTQ42HS/library§REF§" } ] }