Widespread Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Widespread Religions.
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{ "count": 1205, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/widespread-religions/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 212, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hephthalite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Various forms of Zoroastrian beliefs were widespread in Central Asia and northern and Western Afghanistan in competition with Buddhism. There were also many adherents of Hindu beliefs in Afghanistan and in Tokharistan. Lastly, Manichaeism had taken firm root and Christianity was spreading.” §REF§ (Litvinsky 1992, 147) Litvinsky, B.A. 1992. ‘The Hephthalite Empire’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 3. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Seshat URL: §REF§ “It is certain that Buddhist believers underwent considerable suffering at the hands or Mihirakula and his legions, and that their eventual liberation from the Hephthalite yoke took place not through their own military endeavours but through the efforts of a coalition of Hindu kings.” §REF§ (Nattier 1991, 113) Nattier, Jan. 1991. Once Upon a Future Time: Studies in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline. Asian Humanities Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/22ESRMXE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 22ESRMXE </b></a> §REF§ “Information about the religion of the Hephthalites is provided by the Chinese sources. Sung Yun reports that in Tokharistan ‘the majority of them do not believe in Buddhism. Most of them worship wai-shen or ‘foreign gods’. He makes almost identical remarks about the Hephthalites of Gandhara, saying that they honour kui-shen (demons). The manuscript of the Liang Shu (Book 54) contain important evidence: ‘[the Hephthalites] worship T’ien-shen or [the] heaven god and Huo-shen or [the] fire god. Every morning they first go outside [of their tents] and pray to [the] gods and then take breakfast.’ For the Chinese observer, the heaven god and fire god were evidently foreign gods. We have no evidence of the specific content of these religious beliefs but it is quite possible that they belonged to the Iranian (or Indo-Iranian) group.” §REF§ (Litvinsky 1992, 147) Litvinsky, B.A. 1992. ‘The Hephthalite Empire’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 3. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7MTFU42T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7MTFU42T </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"These sources indicate that trade between Bukhara and Multan was routed through Kabul and dominated by Shikarpuri Hindus and Lohani Afghans. For the Mughals and early Durranis Multan was important as a mint city, as a hub of the interregional trade networks linking Central and South Asia, and as a production center in its own right. [...] Shikarpur was not noted for any significant local production or mar-keting of local or imported commodities. The city was known almost strictly as a money market and banking center, and its reputation was garnered by those claiming or being ascribed the Shikarpuri identity who resided far from the city itself. [...] Elsewhere, Burnes notes the residents of Shikarpur city itself to be about 50 percent Baba Nanak Sikhs and 40 percent Muslim, most of the latter group being identified as Afghans who received land grants from the early Durranis. This leaves a Hindu resident population of approxi-mately 40 percent, but their importance was proportionately much greater because members of this community comprised most of the Shikarpuris found so widely outside the city.\"§REF§(Hanifi 2011: 43-44) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3WEZNEJJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3WEZNEJJ </b></a>.§REF§<br>Sikhs and Hindus seem to have been mostly confined to the cities of Multan and Shirkarpur. \"Elsewhere, Burnes notes the residents of Shikarpur city itself to be about 50 percent Baba Nanak Sikhs and 40 percent Muslim, most of the latter group being identified as Afghans who received land grants from the early Durranis. This leaves a Hindu resident population of approxi-mately 40 percent, but their importance was proportionately much greater because members of this community comprised most of the Shikarpuris found so widely outside the city.\" §REF§(Hanifi 2011: 43-44) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3WEZNEJJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3WEZNEJJ </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 220, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Konkō", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "”Several newly founded popular religions of late Tokugawa times each won thousands of believers. These include the Kurozumi (1814), Tenri (1838), and Konkō (1857) religions, among others. Each was founded by a man or a woman who experienced a divine revelation or a miraculous cure. They drew diversely on Shinto or Buddhist elements. These religions gained support from masses of peasants who had come to expect that a great change was imminent. […] The authorities viewed these groups with much anxiety.” §REF§ (Gordon 2003, 45) Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WKE76S3C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WKE76S3C </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 230, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "African Traditional Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB Clearly it is problematic to refer to indigenous beliefs as “religion”, as well as to us broad labels that actually include significant diversity (e.g. (e.g.: “anyone attempting to orchestrate a single unified cosmology, even within one Aboriginal community, will succeed mainly in obscuring the very fabric of their world view” §REF§ (Swain and Trompf 1995: 22) Swain, Tony and Trompf, Garry. 1995. The Religions of Oceania. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H57QAXFC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: H57QAXFC </b></a> §REF§), but it is also problematic to only include organised religions in our analyses. “Not uncommonly, when Britons and other westerners wrote of ‘Indian society’, they meant ‘Hindu society,’ omitting Buddhist, Jains, and Sikhs who appeared numerically insignificant, Christians who were supposedly delivered from casteism, and Muslims who did not count as properly ‘Indian’ either as a religion.” §REF§ (Gottschalk 2013, 201) Gottschalk, Peter. 2013. Religion, Science, and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F6F639MM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F6F639MM </b></a> §REF§ “The British state was never able to exterminate Catholicism or secure complete authority for the Church of England within its dominions, either within the British Isles or across the widening overseas empire, but religious persecution did have the effect of reducing did have the effect of reducing the Catholics of England to a very small religious minority. Outside of Ireland, therefore, the British Empire initially included relatively few Catholics across its scattered colonial possessions and trading outposts, and most Britons had little no acquaintance with Catholics or Catholicism.” §REF§ (Cunich 2008: 150) Cunich, Peter. 2008. ‘Archbishop Vaughan and the Empires of Religion in Colonial New South Wales.’ In Empires of Religion. Edited by Hilary M. Carey. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillian. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IHEDTMM8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IHEDTMM8 </b></a> §REF§ “Overseas, the London Missionary Society was well established in the Western Pacific and South Africa, the CMS in Sierra Leone and India, the Baptists in Bengal and West Indian Colonies. Methodist and Presbyterian missions were also similarly scattered and poised for a new phase of expansion.” §REF§ (Porter 1999: 229) Porter, Andrew. 1999. ‘Religion, Missionary Enthusiasm, and Empire.’ In The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century. Edited by Andrew Porter. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EKURAV7D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EKURAV7D </b></a> §REF§ “The Cochin Jews claim to have originated in Jerusalem, having fled the Roman invasion and destruction of the second Temple in 70 CE. The Bene Israel say their ancestors’ sailing vessel from ancient Israel was shipwrecked off the Konkan coast […] In seeking a comfortable home in exile, India’s Jewish communities are very much like Jewish communities everywhere. As in most places, proximity to and emulation of high-status groups confer status. India’s cultural conditions were unique, but the Jewish acculturational process resembled general patterns elsewhere in the Diaspora.” §REF§ (Katz 2000, 3) Katz, Nathan. 2000. Who Are the Jews of India? Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QZ8AKKCU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QZ8AKKCU </b></a> §REF§ “Missionaries took a significant role in Treaty negotiations. Anglican missionary, Reverend Henry Williams interpreted for Hobson when he explained the Treaty to the initial, party of Chiefs. Monsignor Pompallier attended, a negotiation meeting prior to the signing and asked Consul Hobson that the Treaty give all peoples in New Zealand the right to choose their religion. Hobson replied that all religious beliefs and practices would be recognised and protected including those of Maori. Although this promise does not appear in the written treaty its inclusion is accepted as a ‘verbal’ provision and is alluded to as the Fourth Article.’ Religious freedom therefore has a foundation in the terms of Pakeha colonisation and subsequent relations between Maori and Pakeha.” §REF§ (Bouma et. al. 2010: 32-34) Bouma et. al., Gary D. 2010. Religious Diversity in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. London: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CKQXV54\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2CKQXV54 </b></a> §REF§<br>Relative to the empire’s major religions. A couple of examples: “The British state was never able to exterminate Catholicism or secure complete authority for the Church of England within its dominions, either within the British Isles or across the widening overseas empire, but religious persecution did have the effect of reducing did have the effect of reducing the Catholics of England to a very small religious minority. Outside of Ireland, therefore, the British Empire initially included relatively few Catholics across its scattered colonial possessions and trading outposts, and most Britons had little no acquaintance with Catholics or Catholicism.” §REF§ (Cunich 2008: 150) Cunich, Peter. 2008. ‘Archbishop Vaughan and the Empires of Religion in Colonial New South Wales.’ In Empires of Religion. Edited by Hilary M. Carey. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillian. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IHEDTMM8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IHEDTMM8 </b></a> §REF§ “Not uncommonly, when Britons and other westerners wrote of ‘Indian society’, they meant ‘Hindu society,’ omitting Buddhist, Jains, and Sikhs who appeared numerically insignificant, Christians who were supposedly delivered from casteism, and Muslims who did not count as properly ‘Indian’ either as a religion.” §REF§ (Gottschalk 2013, 201) Gottschalk, Peter. 2013. Religion, Science, and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F6F639MM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F6F639MM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB Clearly it is problematic to refer to indigenous beliefs as “religion”, as well as to us broad labels that actually include significant diversity (e.g. (e.g.: “anyone attempting to orchestrate a single unified cosmology, even within one Aboriginal community, will succeed mainly in obscuring the very fabric of their world view” §REF§ (Swain and Trompf 1995: 22) Swain, Tony and Trompf, Garry. 1995. The Religions of Oceania. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H57QAXFC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: H57QAXFC </b></a> §REF§), but it is also problematic to limit our analyses to organised religions. “Yet as early as the 1710s, a Church of England minister acknowledged that most New York slaves were buried without Chrisitan services and that ‘heathen rites, are performed over them.’ What these rites were is impossible now to say. But beads, shells, and polished stones often accompanied the remains found in the New York burial site and in eighteenth-century African-American burials in Virginia and Maryland. They suggest that traditional African religious customs persisted in the face of obstacles that were quite unknown to adherents of European religions.”§REF§ (Butler 2007; 72; 93) Butler, Jon. 2007. New World Faiths: Religion in Colonial America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPDI9F4I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPDI9F4I </b></a> §REF§ “Other Indian groups demonstrated remarkable resilience in the face of multiple treats to their political, cultural and spiritual universe. One form this took was to incorporate the material goods that the Europeans brought into their own existing religious milieu.” §REF§ (Butler 2007, 99) Butler, Jon. 2007. New World Faiths: Religion in Colonial America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPDI9F4I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPDI9F4I </b></a> §REF§ “The British state was never able to exterminate Catholicism or secure complete authority for the Church of England within its dominions, either within the British Isles or across the widening overseas empire, but religious persecution did have the effect of reducing did have the effect of reducing the Catholics of England to a very small religious minority. Outside of Ireland, therefore, the British Empire initially included relatively few Catholics across its scattered colonial possessions and trading outposts, and most Britons had little no acquaintance with Catholics or Catholicism.” §REF§ (Cunich 2008: 150) Cunich, Peter. 2008. ‘Archbishop Vaughan and the Empires of Religion in Colonial New South Wales.’ In Empires of Religion. Edited by Hilary M. Carey. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillian. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IHEDTMM8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IHEDTMM8 </b></a> §REF§ “But by 1770 Scottish and Scots-Irish Presbyterians made up 18 percent of all colonial congregations, English and Welsh Baptists about 15 percent, Quakers, German Lutherans and German Reformed each claimed 5 to 10 percent of the colonial congregations. Non-English congregations by then accounted for at least 25 percent of all colonial congregations although they had been rare before 1690, and by 1770 no single religious body could claim more than 20 percent of all the colonial congregations. §REF§ (Butler 2007; 72) Butler, Jon. 2007. New World Faiths: Religion in Colonial America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPDI9F4I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPDI9F4I </b></a> §REF§<br>At least in terms of the smaller Christian groups. “The British state was never able to exterminate Catholicism or secure complete authority for the Church of England within its dominions, either within the British Isles or across the widening overseas empire, but religious persecution did have the effect of reducing did have the effect of reducing the Catholics of England to a very small religious minority. Outside of Ireland, therefore, the British Empire initially included relatively few Catholics across its scattered colonial possessions and trading outposts, and most Britons had little no acquaintance with Catholics or Catholicism.” §REF§ (Cunich 2008: 150) Cunich, Peter. 2008. ‘Archbishop Vaughan and the Empires of Religion in Colonial New South Wales.’ In Empires of Religion. Edited by Hilary M. Carey. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillian. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IHEDTMM8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IHEDTMM8 </b></a> §REF§ “But by 1770 Scottish and Scots-Irish Presbyterians made up 18 percent of all colonial congregations, English and Welsh Baptists about 15 percent, Quakers, German Lutherans and German Reformed each claimed 5 to 10 percent of the colonial congregations. Non-English congregations by then accounted for at least 25 percent of all colonial congregations although they had been rare before 1690, and by 1770 no single religious body could claim more than 20 percent of all the colonial congregations. §REF§ (Butler 2007; 72) Butler, Jon. 2007. New World Faiths: Religion in Colonial America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPDI9F4I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPDI9F4I </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 778, "name": "in_east_india_co", "long_name": "British East India Company", "start_year": 1757, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The English merchants played an increasingly important role in events in the subcontinent as time went on. They encountered societies that operated in very different ways to their own and people of many faiths. These included, amongst others, Jains, Parsis, Sikhs, Jews, Muslims and Christians.” §REF§ (Carson 2012, 1) Carson, Penelope 2012. The East India Company and Religion, 1698-1858 (Woodbridge, Uk: Boydell and Brewer Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/USXTQFKH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: USXTQFKH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 237, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Arian Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Although Arians had originally come to Gaul as migrants, in Merovingian times they were no longer regarded as migrants or outsiders. However, they did belong to a minority that did not possess Roman citizenship, while at the same time adhering to a different Christian denomination. Arians in southern Gaul were separated from the majority by both legal and religious markers; unlike oriental Christians, they belonged to a group living permanently in Gaul that managed to maintain several identity markers over a substantial period of time. For Gregory of Tours, Arians were the most important religious outsiders; the distinction between orthodoxy and heresy mattered much more to him than ethnicity (Goffart 1982, p. 90).However, we may doubt that he ever met a significant number of Arians in northern Gaul. It is equally improbable that Arians were in a position to conduct theological disputes with Catholics, let alone to win Catholics over to their form of Christianity.” §REF§ (Drews 2020, 122) Drews, Wolfram. 2020. Migrants and Minorities in Merovingian Gaul. The Oxford Handbook of the Merovingian World. Pp.117 - 138. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95Z99GVQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 95Z99GVQ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The island of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) was a colony of Late Bourbon France. “The first chant appeared in Moreau de Saint-Mery’s description de Saint-Domingue, compiled in the late 1780s. A creole lawyer, Moreau recorded what he had learned, largely second-hand it seems, about an ecstatic snake cult he called Vaudoux. The cult was long-established in the colony and associated in particular with the Aja-Fon ethnic group that the colonists called ‘Arada’. Arada blacks maintained the religion’s ‘rules and principles’. According to Moreau the word Vaudoux meant ‘omnipotent, supernatural being.’ In the Fon language the word vodu indeed refers to a supernatural being, and modern scholars have long identified the Aja-Fon culture of Togo and Dahomey (modern Benin) as the dominant influence in twentieth century voodoo. Among its several component cults, the most important remains Rada. The worship of live snakes appears to have died out in Haiti around the end of the nineteenth century, but one of voodoo’s principal deities remains the python Damballa-Wedo. Whydah, in modern Benin, was both a main port of departure for slaves transported to Saint Domingue and the home of a local and still extant, snake cult.” §REF§ (Geggus 1991: 23) Geggus, David. 1991. ‘Haitian Voodoo in the Eighteenth Century: Language, Culture, Resistance’. Jahrbuch fu Geschichte Lateinamerikas. 28(1): Pp 21-51. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GJTRCZXS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GJTRCZXS </b></a> §REF§ “The renewal of the Huron-French alliance coincided with the beginning of nearly a decade of successive epidemics, including smallpox, influenza, and other maladies that ended with the Huron population of 21,000 cut to about 10,000. As disease and death swept the Hurons, they resorted to familiar means of explain and combating the outbreaks. They invoked traditional rituals while their shamans fasted and dreamed in hopes of discovering new, more effective solutions. As a people who placed high priority on consensual harmony, they also feared witchcraft. After a few Hurons were accused, attention focused on the Jesuits. The Indians noted that the epidemics began shortly after the missionaries’ arrival in their villages. The fact that the Jesuits were aspared led some Hurons to assume that conversion would save them too; when it failed to do so, many saw it as further evidence of Jesuit malevolence. And the Jesuits’s insistence on baptizing only the dying led the Hurons to assume a cause and effect relationship here as well.” […] “In spite of these inducements, the Jesuits’ success remained sharply limited […] Instead of the mass Christianization they had sought, the missionaries had simply disrupted a society that placed high value on consensus in its social, political and religious life. Their insistence that converts abandon traditional religious practices extended to community rituals such as funerals, the periodic reburials known as Feasts of the Dead, and war parties against the Iroquois. The result was bitter factionalism characterized by violence, family quarrels, threats, and bribes. The missionaries’ very success with some Hurons reinforced the rest in their conviction that the Jesuits sought to destroy their ties to the supernatural forces that held their society together.” §REF§ (Sailsbury 1992: 504; 505) Sailsbury, Neal. 1992. ‘Religious Encounters in a Colonial Context: New England and New France in the Seventeenth Century.’ American Indian Quarterly. 16:4. Pp 501-504. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKRB3VXQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RKRB3VXQ </b></a> §REF§ The following quote discusses the French colony in Podicherry (Madras), Tamil Nadu, India. “Just before the Revolution, France’s eighteenth-century colonial claims in India underwent an administrative reorganization. The changes subordinated most of the colonies to the Governor of Pondicherry. The local Tamil population, divided among Hindus , Christians and Muslims, were considered French subjects in Pondicherry, and they significantly outnumbered the European residents.” §REF§ (Banks and Edwards 2022:150) Banks, Bryan A. and Edwards, Erica Johnson. 2022. ‘Religion and Revolution in Europe.’ In The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Europe. Edited by Grace Davie and Lucian Luestean. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JGZHEPUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JGZHEPUW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Later, under Shah ʿAbbas II (r. 1642–66), Jews, Hindu Banyans, Zoroastrians and Christians came under increased religious restriction and suppression.” §REF§ (Tiburcio 2020, 13) Tiburcio, Alberto. 2020. Muslim-Christian Polemics in Safavid Empire 1505-1722 CE. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WNFMPUEV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WNFMPUEV </b></a> §REF§ In Safavid Iran there were a small number of Catholic missions. “In the last decade of the seventeenth century, the Catholic missions in Isfahan were struck by the news of the apostasy of two Portuguese clerics from the Augustinian Order. The first case was that of Padre Manuel de Santa Maria, who embraced Islam in 1691 and adopted the name of Hasan Quli Beg […] This second apostate was Padre Antonio de Jesus, who the scholarly consensus has identified with the late ‘Ali Quli Jadid al-Islam (1734).” <ref> (Tiburcio 2020, 9) Tiburcio, Alberto. 2020. Muslim-Christian Polemics in Safavid Empire 1505-1722 CE. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/EREAXUVP/items/WNFMPUEV/collection </ref> “Many scholars attributed this trend to the growing influence at the court of ulama such as Muhammud Baqir Majlisis (d. 1699). Some sources associate the latter with the forced conversion of Armenians, the destruction of Hindu temples and the deportation of Banyan merchants to India. He is also said to have advocated oppressive measures against Jews, and even against Sufis and Sunni Muslims.” <ref> (Tiburcio 2020, 14-15) Tiburcio, Alberto. 2020. Muslim-Christian Polemics in Safavid Empire 1505-1722 CE. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/EREAXUVP/items/WNFMPUEV/collection </ref> The following quote refers to restrictions for adherents of the cult of Abu Muslim. “Anyone who upheld the Imamate of Abu Muslim or bestowed divine qualities on him, as the members of the Abu Muslimiyya, Khurramiyya and Jirmaniyya cults did, was a heretic. Al-Karaki explained that Prophet Muhammad said in one Shi’ite Tradition: ‘The Imams succeeding me are twelve and those who claim more or less are infidels’. To counteract and marginalize the Abu Muslim cult, al-Karaki issued a fatwa calling for the public cursing of Abu Muslim and placing a ban on storytellers who recited his epic.” <ref> (Abisaab 2004, 24) Abisaab, Rula. 2004. Converting Persia: Religion and Power in the Safavid Empire. London: I.B. Tauris. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/EREAXUVP/items/GTTJR49K/collection </ref>" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 265, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mandeanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Kirdir’s list of ostensibly deviant traditions offers no sense of their prevalence in the empire. Moreover, as Richard Payne has suggested, Kerdir’s claims to have damaged Christianity and Judaism were likely exaggerated. See Payne, R.E. (2015), A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity, Oakland: University of California Press, on p. 24. For what it’s worth, I suspect Christianity rose in prominence significantly after Yazdgerd I created the Church of the East in 410 and essentially placed himself at its head (much the way Constantine did a century earlier). We know of increasing importance of Christian clerics in matters of taxation, diplomacy, etc. I discuss this on pp. 187-190 in Patterson, Lee E. (2017), “Minority Religions in the Sasanian Empire: Suppression, Integration, and Relations with Rome.” Sasanian Persia: Between Rome and the Steppes of Eurasia. Ed. Eberhard Sauer. Edinburgh Studies in Ancient Persia. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 181-98. But, again, it’s impossible to say if Christianity was number two after Zoroastrianism, or number three, and so on.\" (Lee Patterson, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, December 2023)", "description": "“The persecution of the other religious groups also becomes evident from the inscription (KKZ 9–10) in which Kerdir states that Jews (yhwd-y), Buddhists (šmn-y), Hindus (brmn-y), Nazarenes (n’cr’-y), Christians (krstyd’n), Mandaens (mktk-y), and Manichaeans (zndyk-y) were harmed. The next line indicates that idols existed in the empire or idol worship was in existence which was probably in regard to Christians’ and Buddhists’ veneration of the image of their respective leaders/teachers. The Persian term of idol, but is derived from Buddhawhich gives credence to the fact that Kerdir persecuted the Buddhists.” §REF§ (Daryaee 2014, 77) Touraj Daryaee 2014. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London, England: I.B. Tauris. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ETDRZZE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ETDRZZE </b></a> §REF§ “Christians were to be the subject of persecution for several reasons. […] The problem with the issue of Christian loyalty to the King of Kings is also clear in that Shabuhr II in the fourth century had asked a double tax from the Christians for his war campaign.” §REF§ (Daryaee 2014, 77-78) Touraj Daryaee 2014. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London, England: I.B. Tauris. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ETDRZZE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ETDRZZE </b></a> §REF§ “It is all to east to take the Great Kings at their word as they championed the doctrines of Zoroastrianism in their political pronouncements especially as some of them also persecuted Christianity. Whether or not such sentiments were genuine, a closer analysis of the evidence suggests a more pragmatic royal use of religion. The political realities on the ground were more often the deciding factor in how the kings related to the religious sectors of Sasanian society. This state of affairs sometimes set the kings against the Zoroastrian clerics, whose agendas were not always in alignment, and it explains why Christian persecutions were usually motived more by politics than doctrine. Moreover, this dynamic also explains the prominence of the Christian church in the later Sasanian period as kings employed it as a base of support, much as they had the Zoroastrian hierarchy.” […] “One basic fact has long been accepted: although Zoroastrianism was prominent in the Sasanian Empire, it was in fact a vast and diverse empire of many traditions existing in a coherent, if not always harmonious, system. The fortunes of these traditions, including Christianity, Judaism, Manichaeism, Buddhism and so on, fluctuated with the temperatures and policies of each Shahanshah and, to a lesser extent, other entities such as powerful Zoroastrian molads.” §REF§ (Patterson 2017:181;182) Patterson, Lee E. 2017. ‘Minority Religions in the Sasanian Empire: Supression, Integration and Relations with Rome.’ In Sasanian Persia: Between Rome and the Steppes of Eurasia. Edited by Eberhard W. Sauer. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JDM2MSE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5JDM2MSE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"So the situation in both Elephantine and the province of Jehud shows that the religion of the Jewish population was largely left unrestricted by any kind of religious politics on the part of the Achaemenids.\" §REF§(Hutter 2020: 1299) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8W97BZBH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8W97BZBH </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The story of al-Mukhdaj—‘the one with the mutilated arm’—a sort of ‘legendary arch-Kharijite’, whose story gained eschatalogical associations, suggests that the penalty of amputation was closely associated with pious rebellion against the state. Furthermore, the penalties that are said to have been inflicted on Kharijites by the Umayyads do appear to indicate that amputation of limbs was perhaps particularly associated with the punishment (or oppression) of Kharijism. […] The public display (tanaub) of the executed is also said to have been understood by the Umayyads themselves as something appropriate only for ‘rebels’ associated with pious rebellion against the state. (as opposed to defeated members of their own family).” §REF§ Marsham 2011, 123) Marsham, Andrew. 2011. ‘Public Execution in the Umayyad Period: Early Islamic Punitive Practice and its Late Antique Context’. Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. Vol. 11. Pp. 101-136. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5VK835AD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5VK835AD </b></a>§REF§ “The elements of a growing Islamic opposition to Umayyad rule were as diverse as their motives: non-Arab Muslims who were second class citizens vis-à-vis Arab Muslims and denounced this as contrary to Islamic egalitarianism; Kharijites who continued to revolt in Mosul and Kufu; Shii or supporters of the family of Ali’s claim to leadership of the Muslim community […] All opposition factions shared a common discontent with Umayyard rule and a tendency to couch their critique and their response in Islamic terms: ‘From being a society of Arabs who happened to be bound together by Islam, it must become a society of Muslims who happened to use the Arabic tongue and respect parts of the Arab heritage.’ The result was a broad-based, diverse anti-Umayyad sentiment which grew increasingly strong during the last decades of Umayyad rule (ca. 720-50).” §REF§ (Esposito 1998:17) Esposito, John. Islam and Politics. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPZDP7QG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPZDP7QG </b></a> §REF§ “Shiism took a different path. After Ali’s death, the caliphate became the possession of dynasties- first the Umayyads and later the Abbasids. The Shia rejected the authority of the caliphs in Damascus and Baghdad and continued to argue that the rightful leaders of Islam could only come from the marriage between Ali and Fatima, Muhammad’s daughter.” […] “The Shia view became crystallized at the siege and battle of Karbala in 680 C.E., when soldiers of the second Umayyad caliph Yazid I, massacred Ali’s son Husayn along with seventy-two of his companions and family members (that number has since symbolized martyrdom). Husayn’s refusal to the legitimacy of the Umayyad caliphate had been a stance that he shared with the people of Kufa, Ali’s capital.” §REF§ (Nasr 2006:40) Nasr, Vali. 2006. The Shia Revival. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JWIZV4JX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JWIZV4JX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“But the Islamic empire comprised a diversity of more ancient communities (Arabs, Persians, Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, Manichaeans, and Buddhists), all of whom partook in energizing the transition from the divided world of Late Antiquity between the Roman (Byzantine) and Persian (Sassanid) empires straddling a border along the Euphrates river to a unified world of cultural and economic synthesis under the caliphate.” §REF§ (El-Hibri 2021, 1-2) El-Hibri, Tayeb. 2021. The Abbasid Caliphate: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84PTZMDF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 84PTZMDF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 206, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Canaanite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes demonstrate there were other significant religions in practice during these periods including the worship of various deities such as: El, Quas, ʾEshmun (ʾšmn), Astarte and Baʿal. “From these sources, it is clear that during these periods the Samaritans were a major ethnic/religious group living in the Land of Israel, alongside Jews, pagans and eventually Christians, practicing a religion that was in many ways very similar to the Judaism of the time, but also very different. The various Jewish sources indicate that they considered the Samaritans to be foreigners and enemies on one hand, but respected their piety on the other.” §REF§ (Levin 2013, 217-218) Levin, Yigal. ‘Bi-Directional Forced Deportations in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Origins of the Samaritans: Colonialism and Hybridity.’ Archaeological Review from Cambridge. Vol 28 (1): 217-240. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RG2ZCSUG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RG2ZCSUG </b></a> §REF§ “Within the Bible, “Edom” is presented as Israel’s twin and its harshest enemy, but there are hints that the Edomites worshipped the God of Israel. While the origins of the “Edomite deity” Qaus remain obscure, as does the process of their migration into southern Judah, the many inscriptions from the Persian period show that Quas became the most widely worshipped deity in the area, even if other gods, including Yahweh, were also recognized.” … “The very first evidence of “Edom” as a specific group goes back to Egyptian sources of the late thirteenth century BCE. Based on the few Iron Age inscriptions found on both sides of the ‘Arabah, Vanderhooft has classified the Edomite language as Northwest Semitic, “in the Canaanite linguistic group”, and not, as has sometimes been claimed, as an Arabic dialect. This of course matches the biblical view of the Edomites as Israel’s “brothers”. According to Rollston, the late Iron Age Edomite script seems to be based on that of Aramaic. There is a debate on the precise date and process by which a full-fledged Edomite kingdom arose, but the existence of such a kingdom by the eighth century BCE is clearly attested in contemporary Assyrian inscriptions, in a small number of seal impressions mentioning kings of Edom, in a few of the Arad ostraca, and by what seems to be a distinctive Edomite material culture, on both sides of the ‘Arabah. Like Judah and some of the other states of the southern Levant, Edom managed to survive Neo-Assyrian hegemony as a vassal kingdom, and several kings of Edom are mentioned in Neo-Assyrian sources.” §REF§ (Levin 2020, 1, 2) Levin, Yigal. 2020. ‘The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism.’ Religions. Vol 11(10): 487. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7SD3X79\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N7SD3X79 </b></a> §REF§ “Sidonian influence on Israel persisted until the kingdom was incorporated into the Assyrian provincial system after the destruction of Samaria in 722 b.c.e. Samaria Ware, an elegant version of standard Phoenician Red Slip, graced the tables of the wealthy, as ivory adorned their meeting places. Israel’s business community included travelers (ʾanšê tārîm), those who were engaged in foreign trade; merchants (rokelîm), those who controlled the domestic market; and retail dealers (soḥarîm), those who had shops or peddled goods. In the very early eighth century, there were Israelite traders working with Judeans and Philistines at Kuntillet ʿAjrud on the incense route to ʿAqaba and Arabia. There are seals of Israelite merchants and traders, some of them women, and at Hazor and Samaria containers inscribed in Phoenician with the names of Sidonian traders who shipped their goods to these places. They were distrusted because they were cosmopolitan—in more traditional terms, because they were rich and unscrupulous and oppressed the poor—and shared religious and cultural values with their rascally “Canaanite” partners.” §REF§ (Peckham 2014, 190) Peckham, Brian J. 2014. Phoenicia: Episodes and Anecdotes from the Ancient Mediterranean. University Park: Penn State University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9MQ9KNTH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9MQ9KNTH </b></a> §REF§ \"Ammon achieved national status in the ninth century, and in the early eighth was distinguished by a unified religion celebrated in the cult of El, by an established royal dynasty and educated public administration, and by capitol building projects. At the end of the eighth century, tradesmen and craftsmen (individuals or entire families) were deported to Nimrud by the Assyrians, but there is little direct evidence for their contribution to the productivity or economy of their own country, except that one man among them, without lineage, is identified as a fuller.” §REF§ (Peckham 2014, 201) Peckham, Brian J. 2014. Phoenicia: Episodes and Anecdotes from the Ancient Mediterranean. University Park: Penn State University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9MQ9KNTH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9MQ9KNTH </b></a> §REF§ “The Sidonians were religiously conservative. When they joined forces with the Ionians, as may be gathered from the Hassan Beyli inscription, they swore an oath by Heaven and Earth. Their God was ʾEshmun (ʾšmn), “Expiator,” who removed the evil or guilt causing illness and death and who consequently was also known as the “Spirit of Healing” (šdrpʾ) and the patron of the immortal dead (rpʾm). At ʿAmrit in the fifth century, his cult revolved around lustral rites, and a contemporary inscription from Sidon mentions a “Temple of ʾEshmun, the Holy Spirit, at the spring Yadlul, in the mountains” (bt lʾšmn šd qdš ʿn ydll bhr). These rites were observed at least from the eighth century onward, when the Assyrian administrator Qurdi- Ashur-Lamur had to intervene when his tax-collector, in a fit of pique over Sidonian reluctance to pay their taxes, cut the aqueduct bringing water from the mountain to the temple in Sidon. ʾEshmun was a civic God, the God of Sidon and its citizens: his worship was peculiar to the city and was translated to other towns only by particular syncretisms, as in the cult of ʾEshmun-Melqart in Kition or by the later tendency to rationalize, simplify, and universalize pantheons. §REF§ (Peckham 2014, 183-184) Peckham, Brian J. 2014. Phoenicia: Episodes and Anecdotes from the Ancient Mediterranean. University Park: Penn State University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9MQ9KNTH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9MQ9KNTH </b></a> §REF§ “In religious beliefs, there was the Goddess Astarte and Baʿal, the God of land, sea, and sky and the stories told about them. And in religious practice, there were amulets featuring the Craftsman God Bes, mythical beasts such as the Griffin, and symbols such as the Tree-of-Life; or there was anointing, incense, and libations for their funeral rites. The Phoenicians brought with them what they had learned in Cilicia about mining and smelting, writing to unite a cultured and articulate people, and the chance to belong to a cosmopolitan Mediterranean world.” §REF§ (Peckham 2014, 283) Peckham, Brian J. 2014. Phoenicia: Episodes and Anecdotes from the Ancient Mediterranean. University Park: Penn State University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9MQ9KNTH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9MQ9KNTH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 272, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shaykhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“While non-Muslim communities faced distinctive and diverse challenges under Qajar rule, there were also shared experiences. First the main minority communities (Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian and Baha’i) viewed themselves as being part of wider religious groups, and, to a greater or lesser extent, utilised international contacts to put forward community grievances, and develop their community infrastructure.” §REF§ (Gleave 2005, 11). Gleave, Robert. 2005 ‘Religion and Society in Qajar Iran: An Introduction.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EGMITHFH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EGMITHFH </b></a> §REF§ “The major mujtahids, it must be noted, were rarely directly involved in persecutions and occasional would rescue the victims and intervene in quiet the frenzy of the mob which attacked them. However, among these mujtahids, true protectors of the minorities were still quite rare. In this atmosphere, the new Babi and Baha’i converts and the Jews were often the targets of harsh treatment by Muslims. While the mullas were the culprits and the government turned a blind eye to most incidents, the principal protectors, if any, were foreigners.” […] “His [Akhund Mullah ‘Abd Allah] main activity was to curse Babis, Sufis and Shaykhis, all of who he considered najis (ritually unclean), and, to gain attention, he instigated attacks on the Shaykhis, Babis and Jews.” §REF§ (Sahim 2005, 293, 295) Sahmi, Haideh. 2005 ‘Jews of Iran in the Qajar Period: Persecution and Perseverance.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MJGC2IH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MJGC2IH2 </b></a> §REF§ “Baha’allah was born Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri in 1817 in Tehran, the son of a high Iranian government official. He joined the millenarian Babi movement in 1844. When it was suppressed by the Qajar state and the Shi’ite clergy he was branded a heretic. In 1850 the leader of the movement, ‘Ali Muhammad Shirazi, the Bab, was executed, and as a result in 1852, a cabal of disgruntled Babis in the capital made an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the Shah.” §REF§ (Cole 2005, 312-312) Cole, Juan R.I. 2005. ‘The Evolution of Charismatic Authority in the Baha’i Faith (1863-1912).’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MDB6MWQU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MDB6MWQU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Herein comes to our aid the evidence embodied in the writings of foreign travellers and Jesuit missionaries who visited South India as propagators of the Catholic faith. The Jesuits were primarily concerned with the growth and expansion of the missionary activity and the mission stations.” §REF§ (Vriddhasirisan 1995, 5) Vriddhasirisan. V. 1995. The Nayaks of Tanjore. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZHNVFHW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FZHNVFHW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Until the end of the second century, however, there had been only relatively few Christians, possibly c. 200,000 in ad 200, or less than 0.5 per cent of the total population of the empire (Hopkins 1998). This number grew immensely in the third century, making the ‘outsider’ status of Christians more prominent, and therefore more problematic.” §REF§ (Hekster and Zair 2008, 78) Hekster, Olivier, and Nicholas Zair. 2008. Rome and its Empire, AD 193-284. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JK9U4QUR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JK9U4QUR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 111, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Manichaeism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In addition to Pelagianism 6th-century Italian sources also refer the heresy of Manichaeism. The Liber Ponticalis reports that Gelasius, Symmachus, and Hormisdas discovered Manicheans in Rome, and all three bishops are said to have burned Manichean books and to have sent the heretics themselves into exile.” §REF§(Cohen 2016, 523) Cohen, Samuel. 2016. ‘Religious Diversity’. In The Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. Edited by Jonathan J. Arnold. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPK4466C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SPK4466C </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 41, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Arminianism Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"In Upper Egypt, an Armenian community and its churches continued to exist unaffected by the tumult that had befallen the Armenians in Cairo. \"§REF§ (Lev 1999: 191) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z8ZW9T49\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Z8ZW9T49 </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "9", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote demonstrates a little about what is known of foreigners living in Egypt around this time period. It covers the Saite and Persian occupation periods that surrounding the short Inter-Occupation period. I have not found evidence that the treatment of foreigners would have changed in the intervening Inter-Occupation Period. “The settlement at Naucratis was founded in the reign of Amasis, according to Herodotus, but Strabo suggests that it was founded by Milesians who came to Greece in the time of Psamtek I. Greeks were living there as early as before 600 BCE. The participants in the founding of Naucratis were eastern Greeks; this is confirmed by the pottery and other finds from the site. Although an unusual Greek settlement – it was founded by several cities under the grant of pharaoh, and was overlooked by a large Egyptian fort – it was much like a Greek colony in that it preserved an entirely Greek way of life. The extent to which the Greeks of Naucratis had contacts with the mercenaries in the service of pharaoh is a question that is not answerable at present. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that a substantial Greek community, complete with temples and other Greek institutions, as well as news from the homeland via recent arrivals, would have been attractive to the Greek soldiers stationed in Memphis. […]We do not have evidence of a Carian merchant community parallel to that of the Greeks at Naucratis, so we do not know what other roles the Carians may have played in Egypt. But the reference to Caromemphites in later sources indicates the continuity of residence of Carians in Egypt down to the Hellenistic period and beyond. […] although the links between Egypt and Phoenicia were age old […], the connection was reinforced when a Phoenician garrison was established in Memphis late in the reign of Psamtek I. Like the Greeks and the Carians, the Phoenicians established a permanent presence in the Egyptian capital, building a cluster of sanctuaries dedicated to their principal gods. They remained in service to the Saite kings, contributing both soldiers to their campaigns and naval resources. Their presence survived the transfer of power to the Persians, as it naturally would, given the willing incorporation of the Phoenician home cities into the Persian empire. […]Another aspect of cultural cohesion at work in Saite Egypt was the establishment of religious and cultural institutions to serve the needs of the foreign soldiers. Among the Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, and Aramaeans, syncretizing tendencies might have allowed worship of their gods at Egyptian sanctuaries; nevertheless, whenever possible these various communities would have preferred to worship in sanctuaries dedicated to their own respective gods. Little evidence survives for such institutions in Memphis. The sanctuaries at Naucratis served this purpose for the Greeks living there; but much of Greek religious and cultural life was strictly local, and so the needs of the mercenaries in Memphis must have been serviced in the Ionikon. Little is known about the religious life of the Carians, either in Egypt or in their homeland. For the Phoenicians, the ‘Camp of the Tyrians’ in Memphis had a sanctuary of Proteus and a temple to Astarte and probably other shrines as well.71 The Aramaeans in Syene had the benefit of several temples, to Bethel and the Queen of Heaven, to Banit, and to Nabu; all of these are greeted in the letters to individuals in Syene found at Hermopolis.72 In addition, references to other Aramaean gods receiving donations strongly suggests their active worship in the community in Syene. Among the Jews of Elephantine, the religious needs of the community were met by the Temple of YHW. The absolute necessity of such a structure to the Jews of the Elephantine garrison is made plain by the fact that it is virtually the only such temple outside of Jerusalem in this period and the fact that it was maintained in the face of determined hostility from the local Egyptian priesthood.” §REF§ (Kaplan 2010, 3-17) Kaplan, Phillip. ‘Cross-cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt’. Mediterranean Historical Review. Vol. 18. Pp. 1-31. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3TFGDR9I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3TFGDR9I </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the early Kadamba inscriptions there is no evidence of the prevalence in Karnataka of the ancient Vaishnava worship. But it is possible that along with Saivites and Jaina there also existed a few Vaishnavites. For we know that Vaishnavism was propagated early during the Scythian and Gupta periods.” §REF§ (Moraes and Heras 1932: 255) George M. Moraes & Heras, H. (1932). The Kadamba Kula: A history of ancient and mediaeval Karnataka. Bombay: Furtado. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4A35K9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QJ4A35K9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Stone inscriptions found on Jain and Buddhist religious structures at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Lakshmeshwar reveal the names of Chalukya rulers who were Hindu or their subordinates, also Hindus, as sponsors of these structures. Besides the various forms of Hinduism that flourished within Chalukya territories and beyond, Jainism was a major religion in the subcontinent at this time and Buddhism, while still in vogue began to have less and less adherents in the centuries of Chalukya rule and later.” §REF§ (Kadambi 2011:205) Hemanth Kadambi, 2011. Sacred Landscapes in Early Medieval South India: the Chalukya state and society (ca. AD 550-750), PhD dissertation, University of Michigan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AEI5FSCM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AEI5FSCM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 411, "name": "in_bahmani_sultanate", "long_name": "Bahmani Sultanate", "start_year": 1347, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Across the Sunni-Shia polarity there were the Sufis, who actd as missionaries of Islam in the subcontinent.\"§REF§(Avari 2013: 91) Avari, B. Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WMT9BJKT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WMT9BJKT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests that the Muslim population was confined to the ports. “The spirit of toleration was not confined to the religions of the land but was extended to Mahomedanism as well. There were several Mahomedans in the western ports come for the purpose of commerce; they were allowed to practise their religion openly. Jumma· masjids [mosques] were permittedbe built for their use.” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 276), Anant Sadashiv Altekar, 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§ “Muslim officers were appointed to administer their personal law to the Muslim inhabitants.” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 276), Anant Sadashiv Altekar, 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The inhabitants of the Vijayanagara Empire practiced Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism and worshipped various local gods and goddesses.” §REF§ (Sinopoli 2000, 364). Sinopoli, Carla M. 2000. 'From the Lion Throne: Political and Social Dynamics of the Vijayanagara Empire'. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol 43, No. 3., pp. 364. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VGV938CA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VGV938CA </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "3", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "According to expert Stephen C. Cory, \"There was a sizeable indigenous Jewish community in Morocco and not much of an indigenous Christian population. Christianity was probably the third most widespread religion, mostly because it was practiced by Europeans who were resident in Morocco at the time and some Moriscos (baptized former Spanish Muslims who had left Spain due to persecution after 1492 or expulsion after 1609).\" \"Another common characteristic of the Jewish quarters in Fez and Marrakech, mimicked by other cities, was that the Jewish mellah and the Christian captives’ quarters were next to the royal palace. As noted first by al-Wazzan and, somewhat later, by the Franciscan friars: ‘the King’s Palace and its houses are very close to the sajena, which they call of the Christians’. With regard to the city of Marrakech, the Franciscan chroniclers also described how some captive Christians, who enjoyed a somewhat more privileged situation than their companions in captivity, did not live in the sajena, but had their houses in the Jewish neighbourhood. For example, the head of the Christian captives during the visit of Fray Juan de Prado, sometime around 1630, lived in the Jewish quarter. The Franciscan chronicler also wrote that, in addition to the sajena where ‘most of the Christian captives live, and they have their dwelling, there are neighbourhoods of them elsewhere, as in the King’s citadel itself, and in the Jewish quarter’.\" §REF§ (Ojeda-Mata 2020: 117) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HBD6T7K8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HBD6T7K8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 414, "name": "in_ganga_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Middle Ganga", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although Muslims (peasants, artisans, soldiers, officials, and officeholders) comprised perhaps 15–20 percent of the population, the vast majority of Indians were non-Muslims – mostly Hindus with a sprinkling of Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians.” §REF§ (Blake 2013, 87) Blake, Stephen P. 2013. Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires. United States, Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9AM5CUE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9AM5CUE </b></a> §REF§“The Christians were in India at the time of the Mughals […] The number was not very large if the cross breeds were left out.” §REF§ (Roy-Choudhury 1941, 347) Roy-Chowdhury, M. L., & Sastri, R. C. 1941. “Position of Christians in the Mughal empire. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 5, 347–353. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DD85U5M9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DD85U5M9 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 32, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ajivika Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Mauryan rulers often favoured the rash new sects that had sprung up, partly at least in opposition to the Brahmanical orthodoxy- sects such as the Buddhists, the Jains, and the Ajivikas.” §REF§ (Copland et.al. 2012, 39) Copland, Ian et. al. 2012. A History of State and Religion in India. Milton Park: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a> §REF§ “The Ajivikas appear to have attained some importance in the time of Asoka as the latter mentions them side by side with the Buddhists and Nirgranthas and says that his Mahamatras had been asked to look after their welfare and progress as well. In the 12th year of his reign, Asoka made gifts of two caves in the Burabar hills to the Ajivikas. The order seems to have maintained its importance throughout the Maurya period as one of the grandsons of Asoka, Dasarantha, is also known to have dedicated some caves in the Nagarjuni hills to the Ajivika order.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1988, 297) Bagchi, P.C. 1988. ‘Religion’ In Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Edited by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidess Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMX36Z7M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMX36Z7M </b></a> §REF§ “The word Makkhali which is used as a part of the name of Gosala, the founder of the Ajivika order, was probably the name of the order. It corresponds to the Sanskrit work Maskarin. Panini in one of his sutras refers to Maskarin as a class of parivvajakas who carried a bamboo-staff (maskara) in their hands. They were also styled for this reason Ekadandin. While commenting on the Sutra, Patanjali in his Mahabhasya, refers to their fatalistic belief. The Buddhist and Jain texts too ascribe to them as a fatalistic creed and say that they held that there is no cause either ultimate or remote, no reward or retribution, no, such thing as power or energy and that all ‘are bent this way or that by their fate, by the necessary conditions, of the class to which they belong, by their nature […]” §REF§ (Bagchi 1988, 296) Bagchi, P.C. 1988. ‘Religion’ In Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Edited by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidess Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMX36Z7M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMX36Z7M </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 743, "name": "nl_dutch_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Dutch Empire", "start_year": 1815, "end_year": 1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "In Sri Lanka: \"Looking behind the official silence of the Dutch records and putting together minor evidences one could sense that the traditional indigenous religions like Buddhism and Hinduism remained as the submerged mass of an ice-berg.\" §REF§(Paranavitana 2004, 10) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAUD9EW9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PAUD9EW9 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 627, "name": "in_pandya_emp_3", "long_name": "Pandya Empire", "start_year": 1216, "end_year": 1323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Buddhism was not popular during those days.\" §REF§(Nyathi 2016: 52) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5GBCUTGG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5GBCUTGG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 683, "name": "ug_buganda_k_2", "long_name": "Buganda II", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1700, "year_to": 1869, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 200, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "blank", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from the fact that it was introduced quite late to the polity. \"[I]t is clear that the coming of the Arabs and Europeans and the establishment of British colonial rule in the late 19th century did much to destroy a good deal of whatever national solidarity existed in Bugandan society. Foremost was the introduction of Islam in the 1860s and Christianity in the 1870s, which left Buganda – and Uganda – divided among Catholics (who now comprise some 42% of the current population of Uganda), Anglicans (39%) and Muslims (5-11%). No longer did a single religion unite Buganda, and these divisions would come to play a very large role in colonial and post-colonial politics in Buganda.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 683, "name": "ug_buganda_k_2", "long_name": "Buganda II", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1870, "year_to": 1894, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from the fact that it was introduced quite late to the polity. \"[I]t is clear that the coming of the Arabs and Europeans and the establishment of British colonial rule in the late 19th century did much to destroy a good deal of whatever national solidarity existed in Bugandan society. Foremost was the introduction of Islam in the 1860s and Christianity in the 1870s, which left Buganda – and Uganda – divided among Catholics (who now comprise some 42% of the current population of Uganda), Anglicans (39%) and Muslims (5-11%). No longer did a single religion unite Buganda, and these divisions would come to play a very large role in colonial and post-colonial politics in Buganda.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 66, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Indigenous Brazilian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Magical practices and practitioners flourished during the eighteenth century, as may be seen in the records provided by the third and final Visitation of the Inquisition of Brazil. The first and second Visitation had taken placed between 1591 and 1620 in the coastal colonial centers of Salvador, Olinda, and nearby parishes, but the third began in Grao-Para in 1763 – nearly two centuries later, in the heart of the Amazon region. And it might as well be a different world, for the magic, witchcraft, and sorcery reported in the 1700s were essentially different from that of the earlier era: the practices and practitioners had changed, and the assessment of the place of magic had also shifted dramatically.” §REF§ (Myscofski 2013: 212) Myscofski, Carole A. 2013. Amazons, Wives, Nuns and Witches: Women and the Catholic Church in Colonial Brazil 1500 – 1822. Austin: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W4HME2Z6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W4HME2Z6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1390, "year_to": 1854, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following suggests that Islam was mostly confined to merchants. “During his reign [1530 CE – 1565 CE] Kafa allowed its first Muslim traders, the Abjedo clan, to open stations.” […] “This reign [king Galli Ginoch 1675-1710] was also the period of a tremendous increase in trade with the Muslim merchants and consequently, in the slave trade, and Kafa sold many of its conquered opponents to Muslim merchants.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 269, 272) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2A389XGK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2A389XGK </b></a> §REF§<br>The following suggests that Islam was mostly confined to merchants. “During his reign Kafa allowed its first Muslim traders, the Abjedo clan, to open stations.” […] “This reign [king Galli Ginoch 1675-1710] was also the period of a tremendous increase in trade with the Muslim merchants and consequently, in the slave trade, and Kafa sold many of its conquered opponents to Muslim merchants.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 269, 274) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2A389XGK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2A389XGK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1855, "year_to": 1897, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following suggests that Islam was mostly confined to merchants. “During his reign [1530 CE – 1565 CE] Kafa allowed its first Muslim traders, the Abjedo clan, to open stations.” […] “This reign [king Galli Ginoch 1675-1710] was also the period of a tremendous increase in trade with the Muslim merchants and consequently, in the slave trade, and Kafa sold many of its conquered opponents to Muslim merchants.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 269, 272) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2A389XGK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2A389XGK </b></a> §REF§<br>The following suggests that Islam was mostly confined to merchants. “During his reign Kafa allowed its first Muslim traders, the Abjedo clan, to open stations.” […] “This reign [king Galli Ginoch 1675-1710] was also the period of a tremendous increase in trade with the Muslim merchants and consequently, in the slave trade, and Kafa sold many of its conquered opponents to Muslim merchants.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 269, 274) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2A389XGK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2A389XGK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 708, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1495, "end_year": 1579 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 66, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Indigenous Brazilian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Magical practices and practitioners flourished during the eighteenth century, as may be seen in the records provided by the third and final Visitation of the Inquisition of Brazil. The first and second Visitation had taken placed between 1591 and 1620 in the coastal colonial centers of Salvador, Olinda, and nearby parishes, but the third began in Grao-Para in 1763 – nearly two centuries later, in the heart of the Amazon region. And it might as well be a different world, for the magic, witchcraft, and sorcery reported in the 1700s were essentially different from that of the earlier era: the practices and practitioners had changed, and the assessment of the place of magic had also shifted dramatically.” §REF§ (Myscofski 2013: 212) Myscofski, Carole A. 2013. Amazons, Wives, Nuns and Witches: Women and the Catholic Church in Colonial Brazil 1500 – 1822. Austin: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W4HME2Z6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W4HME2Z6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 711, "name": "om_busaidi_imamate_1", "long_name": "Imamate of Oman and Muscat", "start_year": 1749, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The increased commercial contact and control of the island of Zanzibar by the State of Oman strengthened the Indian Ocean network of trade. This also encouraged increasingly large numbers of traders to migrate and to establish trading houses in Zanzibar. Despite evidence of Omani hostility the profitability of the East African trade drew a steady stream of Indian traders. By 1829 there were 214 traders resident in Zanzibar, dealing mainly in ivory and Indian cloth, the latter a staple article of barter. \"Sheriff has argued that within a relatively short time these Indians had largely become integrated into Arab society and culture, noting that by 1828 they no longer had to pay irregular duties. There is evidence against this view, since a visitor to Zanzibar as late as 1843 reported that the Indians 'may still be looked down upon but nobody molests them.'\"§REF§(Gundara 1980: 14) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ER2IP9UW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ER2IP9UW </b></a>§REF§ Note the following, however: \"It was probably only in the late nineteenth century that a small community of Hindu Indian traders started to settle in Zanzibar and on the East African coast.\"§REF§(Oonk 2008: 98) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XDPWUN9G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XDPWUN9G </b></a>.§REF§." }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 665, "name": "ni_aro", "long_name": "Aro", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1902 }, "year_from": 1690, "year_to": 1884, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The year 1885 was a major watershed in the Ibgo-European culture contact. In that year the Sierra Leonean pioneer missionaries in Igboland were replaced by the European Evangelicals. Two Roman Catholic congregations, the Society of African Missions (SMA) came to the western Niger area with headquarters of Asaba, and the congregation of the Holy Ghost Fathers (Spriritans) of the Roman Catholic Mission (RCM) established at Onitsha in the east. The setting up of the administration of the Royal Niger Company by the royal assent of the British Crown a significant development took place in the same year. Within three years of these major developments the Presbyterian Mission at Calabar travelled over the Cross River to Igboland and established a station at Uwana in the present Ebonyi state in Igboland.” §REF§ (Schweiker and Clairmont 2020: 99) Schweiker, William and Clairmont, David A. 2020. Religious Ethics: Meaning and Method. Chichester: Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GBSNG3WM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GBSNG3WM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 665, "name": "ni_aro", "long_name": "Aro", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1902 }, "year_from": 1885, "year_to": 1902, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The year 1885 was a major watershed in the Ibgo-European culture contact. In that year the Sierra Leonean pioneer missionaries in Igboland were replaced by the European Evangelicals. Two Roman Catholic congregations, the Society of African Missions (SMA) came to the western Niger area with headquarters of Asaba, and the congregation of the Holy Ghost Fathers (Spriritans) of the Roman Catholic Mission (RCM) established at Onitsha in the east. The setting up of the administration of the Royal Niger Company by the royal assent of the British Crown a significant development took place in the same year. Within three years of these major developments the Presbyterian Mission at Calabar travelled over the Cross River to Igboland and established a station at Uwana in the present Ebonyi state in Igboland.” §REF§ (Schweiker and Clairmont 2020: 99) Schweiker, William and Clairmont, David A. 2020. Religious Ethics: Meaning and Method. Chichester: Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GBSNG3WM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GBSNG3WM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 660, "name": "ni_igodomingodo", "long_name": "Igodomingodo", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” §REF§ (Bondarenko and Roese 2001: 185-186) Bondarenko, Dmitri M. and Peter M. Roese, 2001. “Ancient Benin: Where did the First Monarchs Come from?”, Asian and African Studies, 10 (1), pp.185-198. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P4DQ36NB </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“For much of the following two centuries Christians in Ethiopia, backed by Portuguese seeking to avoid Arab control of the eastern Mediterranean, managed to maintain a rather stable frontier between the Funj and Ethiopia. During the 16th and 17th centuries several religious missions took place. In 1541 there was a mission to neighbouring Ethiopia. In 1647 Sinnar was visited by the Portuguese priest Giovanni d’Aguila and Antonio da Pescopagano. From 1699 to 1761 there were three papal missions to Ethiopia that passed through Dongola and Sinnar.” §REF§ (Kramer et al. 2013, 108) Kramer, Robert S. et al. Historical Dictionary of the Sudan. Lanham Maryland: The Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/46M64H9J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 46M64H9J </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unk", "widespread_religion": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "sz_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 7, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mahayana Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest the existence of Buddhism and its secondary status relative to Hinduism and indigenous religion. “History of the Sui Dynasty also confirms the existence of Buddhist monks and nuns in Zhenla. They appear to have participated in funerary rites during the reign of Ìsànavarman I (Cœdès 1968a, 74–75), but by the time that Bhavavarman II came to power around 639, the veneration of Siva had begun to eclipse both Buddhism and all other Brahmanical cults. [...] But there are also seven specifically Buddhist inscriptions: K. 828, K. 49, K. 505, K. 755, K. 163, K. 244, and K. 132. To these we should add a few scraps of epigraphical material written in Sanskrit. K. 828 need not detain us, for it is only a small piece of grafftti, but in K. 49—a dual Sanskrit/Khmer inscription from Wat Prei Val, Kompong Trabek, Prey Veng Province, dated 664 ce—two monks (bhikUu), Ratnabhànu and Ratnasirha, are named and described as brothers. [...] The Khmer portion of the text ascribes the title “pu caƒ añ” (= sthavira), or “elder,” to both monks. Bhattacharya (1961, 16) has suggested that this means they must have belonged to the Theravada. This is possible, but the term, although monastic, really implies monastic seniority and is not convincing evidence of sectarian affiliation. Of rather more significance as evidence of possible Theravada presence in Cambodia is a portion of Pali text [K. 820] engraved on the back of a seventh-century buddha figure from Tuol Preah Theat, Prey Veng Province.25 Pali is, of course, the canonical language of the Theravada. Furthermore, Dupont (1955, 190-221) believes that the figure shows some Dvāravati influences. Another Khmer inscription from Prachinburi Province, Thailand, dated 761 CE, is not listed by Vickery, because it was discovered fairly recently (Rohanadeera 1988). It contains three Pali stanzas in homage to the triple jewel that appear to come from the Telakatāha-gāthā, a poetical text believed to have its origin in Sri Lanka. As such, it represents the strongest evidence of a Theravada presence at this period of time. To this one might add a final, though not conclusive, piece of support from a dual Sanskrit/Khmer inscription [K. 388] from Hin K'on, Nakhon Ratchasima, in the Korat region of Thailand.26 The Sanskrit portion mentions the donation of ten vihāras, four stone boundary (sīmā) markers, and some caityas by a royal monk (rājabhiksu) to “provide for the body of Sugata [= Buddha].” Also mentioned is the donation of two sets of monastic robes (civara) in a kathina ceremony. Filliozat (1981, 84) has, dubiously in my opinion, interpreted this as a reference to Theravada practice. [...] Although these specific inferences may not be correct, there does appear to have been a considerable expansion of the Mahayana throughout the Southeast Asian region from the mid-eighth century, perhaps as a result of the sponsorship of the Pāla kings of northeast India and the growing influence of Nālandã university. [...] It seems that a combination of tantric ideas and symbols contained within a Hindu-Buddhist syncretism, common to Bengal and surrounding regions, began to make its presence felt in Cambodia from around this time. The erection of an image of Śri Vidyādhārani (= Prajñāpāramitā) by a physician—mentioned in K. 132, from Sambor Prei Kuk and dated 708 CE—may conceivably fit this context, while a Sanskrit inscription from the same location [K. 604], dated 627 CE, tells us that a Brahmanical teacher of the Śaiva Pāśupata sect, Vidyāviśeśa by name, had studied Buddhism, although it is impossible to say whether this study took place in Cambodia or in India.” §REF§ Harris, I. (2008). Origins to the Fall of Angkor. p.9-11. In Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Honolulu. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S9J7EKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S9J7EKX </b></a> §REF§“There is strong evidence that Buddhism also played a role in Chenla. Both Mahayana and Therevada Buddhism were practiced in Southeast Asia, but the former was more prevalent. Rarely was Buddhism adopted by the roval family, but it was likely practiced by some members of the elite.” §REF§ O'Reilly, D. J. (2006). Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian Polities. p.113-114. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Rowman Altamira. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB628MBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB628MBV </b></a>§REF§ “Buddhism, although known and apparently practiced, was very much a minor religion at this time.” §REF§ Steadman, S. R. (2016). Chapter 14: From Hunter-Gatherer to Empire. p.234-235. Archaeology of religion: cultures and their beliefs in worldwide context. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VIRUTCPJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VIRUTCPJ </b></a>§REF§<br>The following quotes suggest the existence of Buddhism and its secondary status relative to Hinduism and indigenous religion. “History of the Sui Dynasty also confirms the existence of Buddhist monks and nuns in Zhenla. They appear to have participated in funerary rites during the reign of Ìsànavarman I (Cœdès 1968a, 74–75), but by the time that Bhavavarman II came to power around 639, the veneration of Siva had begun to eclipse both Buddhism and all other Brahmanical cults.” §REF§ Harris, I. (2008). Origins to the Fall of Angkor. p.9. In Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Honolulu. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S9J7EKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S9J7EKX </b></a> §REF§“There is strong evidence that Buddhism also played a role in Chenla. Both Mahayana and Therevada Buddhism were practiced in Southeast Asia, but the former was more prevalent. Rarely was Buddhism adopted by the roval family, but it was likely practiced by some members of the elite.” §REF§ O'Reilly, D. J. (2006). Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian Polities. p.113-114. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Rowman Altamira. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB628MBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB628MBV </b></a>§REF§ “Buddhism, although known and apparently practiced, was very much a minor religion at this time.” §REF§ Steadman, S. R. (2016). Chapter 14: From Hunter-Gatherer to Empire. p.234-235. Archaeology of religion: cultures and their beliefs in worldwide context. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VIRUTCPJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VIRUTCPJ </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The pre-1767 trend towards Buddhist kingship was now realized. Brahmanism was not rejected; court ceremonies were retained and the site of the new capital was dubbed Rattanakosin, Indra’s jewel, or Krungthep, city of angels (only foreigners used the old village name, Bangkok).” §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2014: 30) Baker, C. J., Phongpaichit, P., Baker, C. (2014). A History of Thailand. Costa Rica: Cambridge University Press. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9NZXSU7Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9NZXSU7Z </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest the existence of Vaisnavist Hinduism in late Angkor. “The chronicles are clear that Ang Chan was a pious Theravadin. However, he is also known to have executed a series of Brahmanical bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat, including depictions of Krsna's victory over Bāna and Visnu's victory over the Asuras. It is worth bearing in mind that the Buddha was regarded as an incarnation of Visnu in Brahmanical circles and that there had been a tendency to associate him with Rāma, another incarnation of Visnu, since the time of Sūryavarman II (Thompson 1999, 249).” §REF§ Harris, I. (2008). The Middle Period and the Emergence of the Theravada. p.33. In Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Honolulu. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6FUXX8D5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6FUXX8D5 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The French missionary Nicolas Gervaise noted that one-third of the kingdom were ‘foreigners’ insofar as they were descendants of prisoners of war from Laos and Pegu, but that they had merged so completely with the Siamese that it was difficult to tell them apart.55 These Buddhist groups were thus distinguished from various ‘peripheral communities’, mostly Muslim or Catholics, such as the Japanese, Persians, and Portuguese. These maintained greater cultural distinctiveness from the centre but were incorporated into the state order through the appointment of nai (community leaders).56 They were, in turn, distinct from the more transient foreign groups such as the Dutch and French who operated on their own terms.” §REF§ (Strathern 2021: 11) Strathern, Alan. (2021). Thailand's First Revolution? The role of religious mobilization and ‘the people’ in the Ayutthaya rebellion of 1688. Modern Asian Studies, pp.1-34. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WPGUW8ER\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WPGUW8ER </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "unc", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "‘\" The following quote suggests the presence of Banias in the Qasimi Dynasty, tolerated by the predominantly Muslim community: “From its creation in the late 3rd / 9th century until the latter half of the 17th century the Zaydi imamate had tolerated the presence in Yemen of Jews and later, in the Qasimi period, of Banias.” §REF§ (Haykel 2003, pg. 116) B. Haykel. 2003. Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZQNUAHA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZQNUAHA </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "ye_rasulid_dyn", "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Not specified which branch of Hinduism. “Aden was a global emporium, cosmopolitan both in its population and in the goods it handled. Merchants from around the Indian ocean flocked to the city. By the late fourteenth century, for example, one quarter in the city was just for the Hindu Gujarati baniyan (merchants) […]” §REF§ (Dumper and Stanley 2007, 11) Dumper, Michael and Stanley, Bruce. 2007. ‘Aden.’ In Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NS6GMT7E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NS6GMT7E </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Widespread_religion", "order": "4", "degree_of_prevalence": "vs_m", "widespread_religion": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote does not discern between the different branches of Judaism. “Bringing together all these figures [early modern Jewish population statistics in the Ottoman Empire], one reaches a total of approximately 150,000 Jews in the Ottoman Empire as a whole at its height in the sixteenth century, approximately three percent of its population, compared to only 75,000 Jews in Poland and Lithuania at the same time.” §REF§ (Shaw 1991, 40) Shaw, Stanford J. 1991. The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5B6Z4CPG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5B6Z4CPG </b></a> §REF§ “There were, first of all, those who had remained under Roman and then Byzantine rule, the Greek-speaking Jews, called Romaniotes or Griegos, who continued to use Greek as their secular language […]In the eastern provinces that had been under the Islamic Caliphates there were the Arabized (Musta’rab) Jew, who spoke Arabic and were heirs of the great Islamic civilizations of the Umayyads of Damascus and the Abbasids of Baghdad. They therefore disdained both the Romaniotes and the European Jews, though they themselves were divided, between the true ‘easterners,’ called Mizrahiyyim in Iraq, and ‘westerners,’ or Ma’raviyyim, of Aleppo, Damascus and Cairo[…] Entering the Ottoman Empire in flight from Christian persecution in Europe were the Ashkenazi Jews from Western, Central and Northern Europe […]Finally there the Sephardic (Sepharad, of ‘Spanish’) Jews from Spain and Portugal as well as from the lands in which they had taken refugee following the great expulsion in the fifteenth century, in particular Italy and North Africa […]” §REF§ (Shaw 1991, 44-45) Shaw, Stanford J. 1991. The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5B6Z4CPG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5B6Z4CPG </b></a> §REF§" } ] }