Theo Sync Dif Rel List

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    "count": 296,
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        {
            "id": 155,
            "polity": {
                "id": 287,
                "name": "uz_samanid_emp",
                "long_name": "Samanid Empire",
                "start_year": 819,
                "end_year": 999
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Religiously, there is no substantial evidence to suggest that the Samanids were anything but orthodox Hanafi Sunnis; it should be noted that there was a brief flirtation by certain elements of the Samanid military (particularly a general named al-Husain al-Marwazi) with Isma’ili Shi‘i preachers in the 920s, but by and large Shi‘is and heterodox groups were considered anathema by the authorities.\" §REF§Mitchell, C.P. 2006. Samanids. In Meri, J.W. and Bacharach (eds) Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia pp. 691-693. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DEU4G64K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DEU4G64K </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 156,
            "polity": {
                "id": 467,
                "name": "af_tocharian",
                "long_name": "Tocharians",
                "start_year": -129,
                "end_year": 29
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"The Kushan, like other nomads in Central Asia, tended to change objects of worship, or even embrace other religions through interactions with other peoples, especially sedentary peoples. Religious tolerance and the diversity of Bactrian religion itself also encouraged the Kushan to adopt the various religious cults they encountered.” §REF§ (Liu 2001: no page number) LIU, Xinru., 2001. “Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies.”, Journal of World History,  v. 12, n. 2, p. 261–292. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HR7RXZ4H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HR7RXZ4H </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 157,
            "polity": {
                "id": 468,
                "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states",
                "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period",
                "start_year": 604,
                "end_year": 711
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Although there were non-Zoroastrian divinities among these gods, the influence of Zorastrianism was indubitable. The Sogdians probably regarded themselves as Zoroastrians, as indeed they were considered by al-Biruni and other authors writing in Arabic. Those Sogdian customs that seem contrary to Zoroastrian doctrine (Hindu-style iconography, the mourning of the dead) also existed in Khwarizan, whose Zoroastrianism is not open to doubt and where the Avestan gahanbars (phases of creation) were celebrated as religious feasts. There is evidence from the fifth century onwards in the Sughd of the custom of cleaning the flesh from bones and burying them in ossuaries, as in Khwarizam.” […] “No correctly painted Buddhist images exist in Sogdiana paintings, but images of Hindu gods (of secondary importance from the Buddhist point of view) helped the Sogdians to create their own religious iconography in the sixth to the eight century. As in Sogdian Buddhist and Manichaean texts, Zurvan [Zoroastrian creator deity] is depicted in the form of Brahma, Adbag (Ohrmazd) in that of Indra (Sakra) and Veshparkar (Vayu) in that of Shiva (Mahadeva). A four-armed Nana mounted on a lion, a divine couple with symbols in the form of a camel and a mountain ram and other images of divinities are also known. The absence of highly developed forms of state organization explains the important role played by the worship of the divine patrons of individual families and communities.” §REF§ (Marshak and Negmatov 1996: 253) Marshak, B.I. and Negmatov, N.N. 1996. ‘Sogdiana.’ In History of Civilization of Central Asia. Vol. III. (Paris: UNESCO Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9U8K89BD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9U8K89BD </b></a> §REF§ “Sogdian religion was a local form of Mazdeism, but it was also syncretic, having absorbed Hellenic and Indian influences. Fire alters were an important feature of the local religion as in the state of Zoroastrianism of Sasanian Iran.” §REF§ (Frye and Litvinsky 1994: 467) Frye, Richard N. and Litvinsky, Boris A. 1994. ‘The Northern Nomads, Sogdiana and Chorasmia.’ In J. Herrmann and E. Zurcher (eds.), History of Humanity: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. Vol. III. (Paris: UNESCO Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WW8P2A7R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WW8P2A7R </b></a> §REF§ “At the same time the Sogdian artists, besides deriving much inspiration from India, showed considerable ability in creating images directly inspired by Zoroastrian texts. One of the most impressive examples is the group of portrait of the Amesa Spentas, shown on a series of ossuaries produced in a small region between Samarkand and Bukhara in the 6th and 7th centuries.” §REF§ (Grenet 2015: 136) Grenet, Frantz. 2015. ‘Zoroastrianism in Central Asia.’ In Michael Stausberg et. al. (eds.), The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism. (Oxford: Wiley). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PSNJIZPA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PSNJIZPA </b></a> §REF§ “There was no centralized state system in Sogd. The Sogdian states formed a kind of confederacy, while each one of them had its own ruling dynasty. This system existed until the end of the seventh century. Sogd did not have an organized state religion, although the majority of its population adhered to Mazdeism and Zurvanism [a sect of Zoroastrianism/Mazdeism], which included some Hellenistic and Indian Buddhist influences. There was also a religious tolerance towards other cults (such as Nestorianism and Manichaeism).” §REF§ ( Zhivkov 2015: 225) Zhivkov, Boris. 2015. Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. (Leiden: Brill). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V8KA2GID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V8KA2GID </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 158,
            "polity": {
                "id": 370,
                "name": "uz_timurid_emp",
                "long_name": "Timurid Empire",
                "start_year": 1370,
                "end_year": 1526
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Experts Blake Pye and A. Azfar Moin also comment: \"With the Safavids, lines between Sunnis and Shi’is in Iran become much clearer. In the Timurid era prior to the Safavids, there was a general practice of “imamophilic sunnism,” in which the Shi’I Imams and descendants of ‘Ali were venerated by most of the populace.\" Also see: Matthew Melvin-Koushki, “The Quest for a Universal Science: The Occult Philosophy of Sa’in al-Din Turka Isfahani (1369-1432) and Intellectual Millenarianism in Early Timurid Iran,” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2012), ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, 69-73.\r\n\r\n“The Iranian mentality which, as we have seen, was characterised by an attempt to fuse sufism with the Shi'a and by an increasing trend towards 'Alidism. It needs to be said that this latter trend was extremely vague.” §REF§ (Amoretti 1986, 615) Amoretti, B.S. 1986. ‘Religion in the Timurid and Safavid Periods’. In The Cambridge History of Iran in Seven Volumes. Edited by Peter Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q5K4AIN4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q5K4AIN4 </b></a> §REF§ “[…] a definition of the components of the madhhab under the first Safavids: an extremist type of sufism — which did not prevent the profession of juridical Shafi'ism — influenced by the Kurdish (Ahl-i haqq) and Turkish (Bektashi) aspects of Qizilbash religious beliefs, but possibly also by Nuqtavi elements known to have been present in Gilan, the traditional refuge of the Shaikhs. Its approach was therefore of a heretical type which cannot be strictly characterised as Shi’a or non-Shi’a: such was Shafi'i sufism, which became the ideological banner of so composite a movement as that of the Qizilbash, engaged in difficult political manoeuvres with both the Shi’a Qara Quyiinlu and the orthodox Aq Quyunlu, which were rendered even more complicated by innumerable ties of blood-relationship in no way determined by religious sympathies.” §REF§ (Amoretti 1986, 620) Amoretti, B.S. 1986. ‘Religion in the Timurid and Safavid Periods’. In The Cambridge History of Iran in Seven Volumes. Edited by Peter Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q5K4AIN4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q5K4AIN4 </b></a> §REF§ “All these hybrid and non-Islamic elements exist side by side with a deep reverence for Shi'ism, as is shown not only by the link with 'Ali, who, with his attributes of holder of temporal authority and repository of the divine secret, is the central figure in this type of religious belief, but also by a social organisation reminiscent of certain Zaidite politico-social experiments, as well as by sufi ideas, which, as we have seen, were impregnated with Twelver Shi'ism during the 15th century. The sufi influence in its turn found its way into the Shi'a, at the popular level changing concepts into ritual practices and widening the devotional field, which previously had been limited to the Twelve Imams. §REF§ (Amoretti 1986, 634) Amoretti, B.S. 1986. ‘Religion in the Timurid and Safavid Periods’. In The Cambridge History of Iran in Seven Volumes. Edited by Peter Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q5K4AIN4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q5K4AIN4 </b></a> §REF§ “[…] the bulk of the population, both urban and rural, although for the most part Sunni, had since the Mongol period been affected to a considerable degree by Shi’ite, or at least pro-‘Alid, influences that had become intermingled with Sufi currents. This blending of Sunni, Sufi, and Shi’ite elements resulted in a certain ambivalence, if not outright promiscuity, in the religious climate that was conducive to the spawning and spread of various heretical movements.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 211) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§ “The spread of the cabalistic ideas of the Hurufiyya, the rise of the extremist Musha’sha’, the renewed activities of the Nizari Isma’ilis, the charismatic appeal of the Nurbakhshiyya and the Ni’matullahiyya, and the incipient Qizilbash movement operating among the Turkmen nomads of Azerbaijan and eastern Anatolia, all contributed to the socio-religious ferment which characterized the turn of the century. What these heretical movements had in common was an amalgam of Shi’ite and Sufi ideas with a messianism that was linked to the promise of the establishment of social justice.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 211) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§ “What is most noteworthy about the subjects covered by the two mashyakhas is the inclusion of works on Sufism in al-Kirmani's list under a separate heading thus indicating the extent to which Sufism and the works of Sufis like Najm al-Din Kubra had become integrated into the mainstream of Sunni Islamic studies.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 224) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§ Jalal al-Din Davani was considered to be one of the leading theologians in 15th century Iran. “Jalal al-Din Davani, who was a Sunni despite claims to the contrary, devoted all his energies between 1467 and 1477 to a typical vulgarisation of a classical Shi’a text such as the Akhlaq-i Ndsin, this did not seem to the 15th-century mind to be due to the eccentricity of a scholar, because in reality it formed part of a complex — and to some extent unconscious - official Sunni attempt at annexing concepts or studies traditionally held to be part of the Shi’a rationalistic heritage.” §REF§ (Amoretti 1986, 615) Amoretti, B.S. 1986. ‘Religion in the Timurid and Safavid Periods’. In The Cambridge History of Iran in Seven Volumes. Edited by Peter Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q5K4AIN4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q5K4AIN4 </b></a> §REF§ “The intermingling of sufism and Shi'ism in the light of a reachieved Islamic unity, in accordance with the attempt to return to a kind of religious purism which, as we have seen, was a constant factor in Muslim society at that time.” §REF§ (Amoretti 1986, 616) Amoretti, B.S. 1986. ‘Religion in the Timurid and Safavid Periods’. In The Cambridge History of Iran in Seven Volumes. Edited by Peter Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q5K4AIN4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q5K4AIN4 </b></a> §REF§ “The separate rubric for works on Sufism and the references under it to the works of the Hanbalite Sufi and traditionist, ‘Ab- dullah Ansari, illustrate the combination of Sunnism and Sufism that characterized the religious outlook of the Timurid religious intelligentsia.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 221) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36.   Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 159,
            "polity": {
                "id": 127,
                "name": "af_kushan_emp",
                "long_name": "Kushan Empire",
                "start_year": 35,
                "end_year": 319
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“As early as the Kushan era, Buddhist rituals were mixed with Zoroastrian fire worship, as Kushan kings patronized both religions.” §REF§ (Liu 2011: 60) LIU, X. (2011). A Silk Road Legacy: The Spread of Buddhism and Islam. Journal of World History, 22(1), 55–81. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2AGHBK5G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2AGHBK5G </b></a> §REF§ “Victories in Gandhara allowed Vema Takhtu to replace Sasan, the last of the Gondophares line. Sasan had designed his coinage on a standard of 9.5 grams, originally of silver, showing the usual horse man to the right and a standing Zeus on the reverse. Exactly this type was continued in Gandhara after Vema Takhtu had taken over. But there is one formal change. The Godopharan tamgha was replaced by the three-pronged tamgha of Vema Takhtu, added to by a Kharosthi letter vi, already known from the ‘Mars’ editions. The legend changed, but for us the most important element come in the form of a pot-of-plenty, Sanskrit purnaghata, which now finds its place on the ground in front of Zeus. A pot-of-plenty already was a symbol for the buiders of Sanchi in most of its three leaves it has not exact counterpart in Iran or the West. It is a genuine Indian symbol, and once on the coin of a Kushan it must be addressing the Gandharan population. Following the inherent meaning of the purnaghata the new coins seem to suggest that political changes will be slight and to the advantage of all. The main deity is Zeus, and this is being part of Indo-Greek symbol language. But the addition of the purnaghata shows that Vema wants to be accepted as a conqueror with a recognized concern for the local population.” […] “We would call the mixture of symbols on both sides ‘syncrestistic’ because of the collection being composed from different sources, putting stress on the differences. The alternative is to call the mixture ‘inclusivistic,’ seeing from Vima Kadphises’ image-world that all the myth systems alluded to with their own set of names and notions want to represent one single idea, namely that there is a highest power that regulates every-thing – irrespective of the names applied […] In the wake of Hellenism the idea of monotheism appeared as the ultimate solution and forced the standard systems to merge, with different regions ending up with different amalgamations from similar base materials.” §REF§ (Falk 2019:9; 30) Falk, Harry. 2019. ‘Kushan Religion and Politics.’ Bulletin of the Asia Institute. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4HJ4V4A5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4HJ4V4A5 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 160,
            "polity": {
                "id": 350,
                "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k",
                "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom",
                "start_year": -256,
                "end_year": -125
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“At Ai Khanoum, a city which was occupied from the late fourth/early third century bce to the 140s bce, we have two excavated temples (Mairs 2011, 2013). The city’s main temple, set within a walled sanctuary where evidence of ritual practice includes small limestone altars and vases for chthonic libations, was built on a Near Eastern architectural model, with a distinctive stepped niche decoration on its outer walls. What is preserved of the main cult statue, on the other hand, is Greek in style. The thunderbolt motif on the statue’s sandal suggests that it represented a Zeus, perhaps syncretized with a local god (Grenet 1991).” §REF§ (Mairs 2015: 639) Mairs, Rachel, 2015. “Bactria and India”, in Eidinov, Esther and Julia Kindt (eds.), The Oxford Handbook Of Ancient Greek Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.637-645. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QE37R7HS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QE37R7HS </b></a> §REF§ “The italic inscription, precisely carved without ruled guidelines, has been dated to the first half of the second century BC, toward mid-century. Investigations of Atrosokes’ offering has led to the following conclusions. The statue was dedicated to the Oxus (Vakhsh) and was undoubtedly an offering to the temple of that god. The cult of water, rivers, and their associated deities was widespread among Iranian peoples (including Bactrians), and also among the Hellenes. A contamination of these isomorphic beliefs in Bactria is fully possible. The donor’s name “Atrosokes” (a Bactrian name meaning “burning with sacred fire”) is related to the fire religion and might well have been the name of a priest. The plan and altars of the temple indicate that it was associated with the worship of fire. Since written sources attest to a dualistic notion of water/fire in Iranian (and Indian) beliefs and ritual, the possibility cannot be excluded that the Temple of the Oxus was simultaneously a temple of fire and of the river. The syncretic votive image combines the Greek language, formula and script, and a figure of the Greek god Marsyas, inter alia for the protector of streams, with a pedestal inscription dedicated to the Bactrian deity Oxus-Vakhsh. Such a doubling of mythological images from two different religions was not only designed to increase their sacral power but also intended for a culturally and ethnically mixed Greco-Bactrian environment.” §REF§ (Litvinskii and Pichikian 1994: 57-58) LITVINSKII, B. A., and I. R. PICHIKIAN. “The Hellenistic Architecture and Art of the Temple of the Oxus.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute, vol. 8, 1994, pp. 47–66. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SE4ERE4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3SE4ERE4 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 161,
            "polity": {
                "id": 289,
                "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn",
                "long_name": "Kara-Khanids",
                "start_year": 950,
                "end_year": 1212
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The following quote suggests that there might have been different forms of syncretism present. “Buddhism here was deeply mixed with shamanism or at least appeared as such to Muslim observers” §REF§ (Golden 2008: 344) Golden, Peter B. 2008. ‘The Karakhanids and Early Islam.’ In The Cambridge History of Inner Asia. Edited by Denis Sinor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AJ3JPUFR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AJ3JPUFR </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 162,
            "polity": {
                "id": 281,
                "name": "af_kidarite_k",
                "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom",
                "start_year": 388,
                "end_year": 477
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Inferred from mixture of religious symbolism on coinage. “The typology of the silver drachms follows the pattern of Sasanian coinage but also exhibits innovative features in the design of the image of the ruler […] once can observe an increase in local Indian elements manifesting themselves not only in the names mentioned above but also in a new coin type combining the Sasanian fire alter, symbol of Zoroastrian faith, with the purnaghata (‘vase of plenty’) stemming from the Indian/Hindu religious sphere.” §REF§ (Alram 2014, 272) Alram, Michael. 2014. ‘From the Sasanians to the Huns: New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush.’ The Numismatic Chronicle. Vol. 174. Pp 261-291. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KFAS3ESN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KFAS3ESN </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 163,
            "polity": {
                "id": 17,
                "name": "us_hawaii_1",
                "long_name": "Hawaii I",
                "start_year": 1000,
                "end_year": 1200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence."
        },
        {
            "id": 164,
            "polity": {
                "id": 18,
                "name": "us_hawaii_2",
                "long_name": "Hawaii II",
                "start_year": 1200,
                "end_year": 1580
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence."
        },
        {
            "id": 165,
            "polity": {
                "id": 19,
                "name": "us_hawaii_3",
                "long_name": "Hawaii III",
                "start_year": 1580,
                "end_year": 1778
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence."
        },
        {
            "id": 166,
            "polity": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "us_kamehameha_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period",
                "start_year": 1778,
                "end_year": 1819
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence."
        },
        {
            "id": 167,
            "polity": {
                "id": 21,
                "name": "us_hawaii_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period",
                "start_year": 1820,
                "end_year": 1898
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Through their involvement with the government, the missionaries were completing their assignment during the 1820s. While there were still the aforementioned rural areas that still had some traditional belief, “their native religion was diluted by imported beliefs,” and “[i]t is unlikely that any present-day Hawaiians adhere to the ancient religion in its pure form” (Heatwole, 1988).\" §REF§(McCall 2022, 4) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4EBCFH6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T4EBCFH6 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 168,
            "polity": {
                "id": 67,
                "name": "gr_crete_archaic",
                "long_name": "Archaic Crete",
                "start_year": -710,
                "end_year": -500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Some of the conformity of Crete with the wider Greek world is, for example, the pantheon does not really become explicit until at least the Archaic period.” §REF§ (Haysom 2011, 102, 103) Haysom, Matthew. 2011. ‘The strangeness of Crete. Problems for the protohistory of Greek religion’. In Current approaches to religion in ancient Greece. Papers presented at a symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 17-19 April 2008 (Stockholm, 2011). Edited by Matthew Haysom and Jenny Wallensten. Stockholm: Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GHM2GRFX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GHM2GRFX </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 169,
            "polity": {
                "id": 74,
                "name": "gr_crete_emirate",
                "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete",
                "start_year": 824,
                "end_year": 961
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Nicon o Metanoeite is the nickname of St. Nicon who acquired this name because he constantly used the word “metanoeite” (repent) in all his sermons, which he had borrowed from St. John the Baptist’s sermons. [...] Of unique importance is the visit of Nicon o Metanoeite to the island of Crete (Lampsidis, 2007, 178), which took place in 962, just one year after its liberation by Nicephorus Phocas in 961 (for Phocas’ invasion of Crete, Christides, 1984, 172-191; Markopoulos, 1988, Kolias, 1993; Kremp, 1995, 345; Christides, 2017:46; Karapli, 2017:73, 77; Gigourtakis, 2017:55). Nicon o Metanoeite crossed the whole island preaching “repentance” to the inhabitants who had passed a long period under the shadow of the Muslim Arabs. [...] None of the positive aspects of the emirate of Crete mentioned above are reported in Nicon o Metanoeite’s Vita. The short reference to the prevailing situation in Crete at the time of Nicon’s visit in Crete- just a year after its liberation by Nicephorus Phocas- is infused by a strikingly hostile spirit. The narration is in reality a sermon of exhortation of the inhabitants who were accused of contaminating Christianity with the unscriptural Islamic beliefs of the conquerors (Lapsidis, 2007:46, 178-180).\"§REF§(Christides 2018: 6) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3WIJU6JC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3WIJU6JC </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 170,
            "polity": {
                "id": 69,
                "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic",
                "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete",
                "start_year": -323,
                "end_year": -69
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Whilst practices associated with the worship of Dictaean Zeus, and the temple at Palaikastro, by Itanos, Praisos and Hierapytna, or with the worship of Ares and Aphrodite, and the temple at Sta Lenika, by Olous and Lato may have served to unify these sets of poleis and to distinguish each of them from its neighbours, other religious practices in poleis in Hellenistic East Crete would have signified participation in religious identities that functioned at a variety of levels. Participation in relatively local Cretan religious identities may have been signified through worship of deities such as Dictaean Zeus by Itanos, Praisos and Hierapytna (Sections 7.2.1, 7.2.3 and 7.2.6), Britomartis by Olous (Section 7.2.7) and Eileithyia and Zeus Kretagenes by Lato (Section 7.2.9), whilst participation in identities at a higher, panhellenic level may have been signified through the worship of deities such as Athena Polias, Apollo Pythios and Demeter by Itanos (Section 7.2.1), Athena Oleria by Oleros, and then Hierapytna (Section 7.2.5), Athena Polias, Hera, Hestia, Ares and Aphrodite by Hierapytna (Section 7.2.6), Hera, Hestia, Ares and Aphrodite by Lato (Section 7.2.9) and Apollo Delphinios by Dreros (Section 7.2.10). The worship of the Egyptian deities, Isis and Serapis at a number of East Cretan poleis, including Hierapytna, Olous and Lato (Sections 7.2.6, 7.2.7 and 7.2.9) may have signified participation in a different set of identities, also at a relatively high level, associated with the Ptolemies and linked to the increasingly wider context within which identities in eastern Crete were negotiated and communicated during the Hellenistic period.” §REF§ (Maarschalk 2011, 236) Maarschalk, Rebekah Louise. 2011. Continuity and Change: Identity in LM IIIC to Hellenistic East Crete. PhD Dissertation. University of Sheffield. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PUEQFNIP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PUEQFNIP </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 171,
            "polity": {
                "id": 62,
                "name": "gr_crete_new_palace",
                "long_name": "New Palace Crete",
                "start_year": -1700,
                "end_year": -1450
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The following quote suggests that there was iconographic transference with other cultures in the eastern Mediterranean. “The presence of unusual animals is sometimes interpreted as signifying the divinity of the anthropomorphic figures that they accompany. These animals include lions and other felines, griffins (with eagle heads and wings and leonine bodies), Cretan agrimia (wild goats), monkeys, and various birds. Lions, griffins, and monkeys are clearly exotic creatures, associated with rulers or divinities in other ancient cultures of the eastern Mediterranean; their presence on Crete suggests a borrowing on at least the iconographic level.” […] The following quote suggests that there were religious iconographic exchanges between Protopalatial Crete and Egypt and that Minoans adapted these images for their own religious purposes. “Another clear inst2ance of iconographic transfer from the supernatural realm is the figure of Taweret, a hippopotamus goddess associated with women and childbirth in Egypt. She appears on Crete in Protopalatial times, and continued in later periods, but we cannot be sure if the Minoans kept her original religious meaning when they borrowed and changed her image.” […] NB the following quote postulates that the name of a potential Minoan goddess might be related to a Hittite or Levantine goddess with a similar name but is not known for sure. “[…] the early Knossos sealings were impressed by seals bearing the name ‘JA-SA-SA-RA’ in the script commonly known as Cretan Hieroglyphic; JA-SA-SA-RA may be the name of a goddess akin to the Hittite ‘Esha-sara’ or the Levantine ‘Asherah’.” §REF§ (Younger and Rehak 2008, 168, 174) Younger, John G. and Rehak, Paul. 2008. ‘Minoan Culture: Religion, Burial Customs and Administration.’ In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X396WBPN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X396WBPN </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 172,
            "polity": {
                "id": 59,
                "name": "gr_crete_nl",
                "long_name": "Neolithic Crete",
                "start_year": -7000,
                "end_year": -3000
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The following quote suggests relative cultural isolation, making syncretism less likely. “Essential is the fact for most of the Neolithic period (approximately 7000 to 3000 cal BC) Knossos was the only settlement on the island, and was relatively isolated from cultural developments elsewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean. Although only 1% of Neolithic Knossos has been excavated, the surviving evidence, fragmentary figurines, suggest religious life was focused on the simplicity of the household rather than the broader community. The change comes in the Final Neolithic period, wherein there is a massive dispersal of settlements across the island, indicating population growth perhaps supported by an influx of new settlers. Religiously this manifest in a enriched diversification of ritual material culture, including cave shrines and burial sites, communal feasting at population power centres, and perhaps also the beginning of a ritual landscape.”§REF§ (Peatfield 2016, 174-185) Peatfield, Alan. 2016. ‘Ritual and Religion in Neolithic Crete?’ In Decoding Neolithic Atlantic and Mediterranean Island Ritual. Edited by George Nash and Andrew Townsend. Philadelphia: Oxbow Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RSR2X6GK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RSR2X6GK </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 173,
            "polity": {
                "id": 61,
                "name": "gr_crete_old_palace",
                "long_name": "Old Palace Crete",
                "start_year": -1900,
                "end_year": -1700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The following quote suggests that there were religious iconographic exchanges between Protopalatial Crete and Egypt and that Minoans adapted these images for their own religious purposes. “Another clear instance of iconographic transfer from the supernatural realm is the figure of Taweret, a hippopotamus goddess associated with women and childbirth in Egypt. She appears on Crete in Protopalatial times, and continued in later periods, but we cannot be sure if the Minoans kept her original religious meaning when they borrowed and changed her image.” §REF§ (Younger and Rehak 2008, 168) Younger, John G. and Rehak, Paul. 2008. ‘Minoan Culture: Religion, Burial Customs and Administration.’ In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X396WBPN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X396WBPN </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 174,
            "polity": {
                "id": 65,
                "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2",
                "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete",
                "start_year": -1200,
                "end_year": -1000
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis of a Mycenaean-Minoan religious syncretism in post-palatial Crete in general. […] I think we are now relying too much on the Linear B texts from Knossos with their many Greek divinities. Even if they do reflect a syncretism, this was probably a phenomenon of limited scope and perhaps even duration, with little if any impact on the Cretan population at large, as we can see in the archaeological record. The real Mycenaeanization or rather Hellenization of Crete started only with the massive population movements from the Mainland close to the end of the Bronze Age, and even then it took a long time: even in Classical times the Cretan cults retained more peculiar traits, inherited from the Minoan past.” §REF§ (Hägg 1997, 168) Hägg, Robin. 1997. ‘Religious Syncretism at Knossos in Postpalatial Crete’. In La Crète mycénienne. Actes de la Table ronde internationale organisée par l’École française d’Athènes. Suppléments au Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. Athens: École française d’Athènes. Vol. 30. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/78U8ZNJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 78U8ZNJ2 </b></a> §REF§ “Cretan sanctuaries and cult practices were also affected by the turbulence at the end of the thirteenth century bce. In LM IIIC, Mycenaean features such as psi-type figurines appeared at Phaistos, Gortys, and Chamalevri. However, in many places the genuinely Minoan urban bench sanctuary prevailed, associated with certain sets of cult objects such as large clay female figures (the so-called “Goddess with Upraised Arms”), stands, snake tubes, and certain types of receptacles.” §REF§ (Deger-Jalkotzy 2008, 402-403). Deger-Jalkotzy, Sigrid. 2008. ‘Decline, Destruction and Aftermath’. In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBETZ4TC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZBETZ4TC </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 175,
            "polity": {
                "id": 66,
                "name": "gr_crete_geometric",
                "long_name": "Geometric Crete",
                "start_year": -1000,
                "end_year": -710
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The limitations of the evidence mean that any portrait of religion on Crete will necessarily be a collage drawing evidence from sources that are rather too widely distributed through time and space for comfort. […] Since whatever picture we paint of Cretan society is bound to be a collage, it is important to accept that the evidence can be combined in multiple ways. And it is certainly possible to combine the evidence in such a way as to minimize strangeness and to highlight the similarities between the island and other parts of the Greek world. This statement should not really be controversial since no one, to my knowledge, has actually expressed a problem with characterizing Cretan religion as fundamentally Greek.” §REF§ (Haysom 2011, 100) Haysom, Matthew. 2011. ‘The strangeness of Crete. Problems for the protohistory of Greek religion’. In Current approaches to religion in ancient Greece. Papers presented at a symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 17-19 April 2008 (Stockholm, 2011). Edited by Matthew Haysom and Jenny Wallensten. Stockholm: Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GHM2GRFX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GHM2GRFX </b></a> §REF§ “The ‘international inclination’ of the elite in EIA Crete is reflected in the adoption of foreign objects, styles and iconography, both from the Near East and the Greek world. At the same time, it is clear that responses to these outside cultures were selective. The limited rapport with Homeric-Hesiodic related iconography is especially notable. This is well illustrated by the Orientalizing figurative representations of the Cretan shields and other metalwork: particularly striking is the regular appearance of the thoroughly non-Homeric image of Potnia Theron on objects that were part of the elite culture. By dedicating imported, foreign objects (or locally made imitations thereof) in well-visited sanctuaries, lasting claims were laid to special relations with the ‘outside world’ in the broadest sense of the term: with the developing Hellenic world, with the high cultures of the Near East as well as with supernatural realms.” §REF§ (Prent 2005, 421) Prent, Miekel. 2005. Cretan sanctuaries and cults: Continuity and change from Late Minoan IIIC to the Archaic period. Brill: Leiden. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2QJEQWCZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2QJEQWCZ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 176,
            "polity": {
                "id": 64,
                "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1",
                "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete",
                "start_year": -1300,
                "end_year": -1200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis of a Mycenaean-Minoan religious syncretism in post-palatial Crete in general. […] I think we are now relying too much on the Linear B texts from Knossos with their many Greek divinities. Even if they do reflect a syncretism, this was probably a phenomenon of limited scope and perhaps even duration, with little if any impact on the Cretan population at large, as we can see in the archaeological record. The real Mycenaeanization or rather Hellenization of Crete started only with the massive population movements from the Mainland close to the end of the Bronze Age, and even then it took a long time: even in Classical times the Cretan cults retained more peculiar traits, inherited from the Minoan past.” §REF§ (Hägg 1997, 168) Hägg, Robin. 1997. ‘Religious Syncretism at Knossos in Postpalatial Crete’. In La Crète mycénienne. Actes de la Table ronde internationale organisée par l’École française d’Athènes. Suppléments au Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. Athens: École française d’Athènes. Vol. 30. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/78U8ZNJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 78U8ZNJ2 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 177,
            "polity": {
                "id": 105,
                "name": "il_yisrael",
                "long_name": "Yisrael",
                "start_year": -1030,
                "end_year": -722
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The religion of Israel for much of the Iron Age was actually syncretistic; in other words, it combined ideas and practices from several different traditions, and this is true even of the “official” religion” §REF§(Golden, 196) Golden, Jonathan Michael. Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives. Understanding Ancient Civilizations. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5RKI68N7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5RKI68N7 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 178,
            "polity": {
                "id": 110,
                "name": "il_judea",
                "long_name": "Yehuda",
                "start_year": -141,
                "end_year": -63
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Alongside the ‘official’ teaching of the literature, though, there may have been other more popular beliefs. The exact form of these beliefs is not entirely clear; indeed, one should probably think of a variety of beliefs rather than a unified doctrine. The indications are that the dead were regarded as having powers and knowledge of the future in some circles. The question is currently being debated; in any case, the view that death could be survived becomes a clear view only in the Persian or Greek periods. It has been suggested that this was primarily due to Zoroastrian or Greek influence, though others have argued that it was a natural development from Israelite roots.” §REF§(Grabbe 87) Grabbe, Lester L. 2010. An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel and Jesus. London ; New York: T &amp; T Clark. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8KEVRQ9H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8KEVRQ9H </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 179,
            "polity": {
                "id": 104,
                "name": "lb_phoenician_emp",
                "long_name": "Phoenician Empire",
                "start_year": -1200,
                "end_year": -332
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The long-standing Egyptian influence — and at times domination — in the Syrian coastal cities brought with it much contact with Egyptian religion. Cult figures bear Egyptian attributes and dress, and Phoenician deities were equated in the popular belief with their Egyptian counterparts.” §REF§(Harden 74) Harden, Donald B. 1980. The Phoenicians. Repr. with revisions and Extended bibliography. A Pelican Book. Harmondsworth/Middlesex: Penguin Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IVSRHVJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5IVSRHVJ </b></a> §REF§ “By the time of the Phoenicians’ expansion, then, we can discern not only Canaanite elements in their religion, but also much borrowing from neighbouring cults. Yet the religion remained basically Canaanite in spirit.” §REF§(Harden 75) Harden, Donald B. 1980. The Phoenicians. Repr. with revisions and Extended bibliography. A Pelican Book. Harmondsworth/Middlesex: Penguin Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IVSRHVJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5IVSRHVJ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 180,
            "polity": {
                "id": 126,
                "name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
                "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
                "start_year": -180,
                "end_year": -10
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“How may Heliodoros have regarded Vāsudeva and his own attachment to his cult? The Greeks with Alexander, and later Megasthenes, identified some Indian cults with those of Herakles and Dionysos,107 and it has been argued that Megasthenes’ “Indian Herakles” was in fact Vāsudeva-Kr.s.n.a.108 Syncretism, both theoretical and practical, was a common phenomenon in Hellenistic cult, a way of making sense of coexisting pantheons of Greek and non-Greek gods or of driving home a political message. […] Earlier Greek commentators made equations between Greek and Indian gods, but there is no need to assume that those of Greek descent living in India in the second century b.c.e. did the same. The issue is that of familiarity. Just as the bramenai and sramenai of the Aśokan edicts required no Greek cultural translation for the Greeks of third-century Kandahar, Heliodoros and his community, for whom the Indian cultural sphere evidently bore some relationship to their own identity, may well have felt no need to rationalize a local god into the framework of Greek religion.109 If this was the case, then the official status of Indian cults (not just appearing on coins for the benefit of a native Indian constituency but patronized also by Greeks) may suggest a contrast with the case in third-century-b.c.e. Bactria, where the existence of a complicated religious reality (as, for example, in the temples of Ai Khanoum) contrasts with an official, civic identity, on coins and in public inscriptions, which is entirely Greek.” §REF§ Mairs, R. (2014). The Hellenistic Far East: Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia. University of California Press, 128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FE8CZXAU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FE8CZXAU </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 181,
            "polity": {
                "id": 120,
                "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban",
                "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period",
                "start_year": -3200,
                "end_year": -2500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era."
        },
        {
            "id": 182,
            "polity": {
                "id": 118,
                "name": "pk_kachi_lnl",
                "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic",
                "start_year": -5500,
                "end_year": -4000
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era."
        },
        {
            "id": 183,
            "polity": {
                "id": 119,
                "name": "pk_kachi_ca",
                "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic",
                "start_year": -4000,
                "end_year": -3200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era."
        },
        {
            "id": 184,
            "polity": {
                "id": 117,
                "name": "pk_kachi_enl",
                "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic",
                "start_year": -7500,
                "end_year": -5500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era."
        },
        {
            "id": 185,
            "polity": {
                "id": 148,
                "name": "jp_kamakura",
                "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate",
                "start_year": 1185,
                "end_year": 1333
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“Among the Kamakura Buddhist thinkers, Nichiren was the first to integrate secular matters and Shinto kami into his Buddhist scheme, for he believed that Buddhism undergirds reality in all its dimensions. His teachings, in fact, incorporated various elements from Confucian morality and Shinto piety. Before Nichiren's time, Buddhist priests tended to concentrate on scripture, exegesis, and doctrine. Nichiren departed from this pattern by trying to explain Buddhism in more pedestrian terms and by amalgamating it with other varieties of thought popular in his day. Among the schools of Kamakura Buddhism, Nichiren's in particular helped create a form of Buddhism well adapted to the Japanese context. Through this adaptation, Buddhism became accessible to far more people than ever before. […] Ippen (1239-89), a proponent of Pure Land Buddhism and a contemporary of Nichiren, was another religious figure who synthesized Buddhism with various popular beliefs and practices. […] He managed to communicate Buddhism to the people as a path of salvation, by integrating it with practices they could understand. Even while seeking salvation in Buddhism, the common people retained their native Shinto religious beliefs. Ippen was open and responsive to Shinto, and he incorporated various beliefs and practices associated with the kami into his own religious paradigm. In so doing, he made his teachings compatible with the spiritual inclinations on the ordinary people. Throughout Japanese history, it was necessary for Buddhism to come to terms with Japan's indigenous religious traditions in order for it to spread widely. Nichiren's and Ippen's teachings accomplished this synthesis better than those of the earlier Kamakura thinkers, as both molded Buddhism to fit the popular religious consciousness of the Japanese. §REF§ (Kazuo, 559-560) Kazuo, Osumi. 2008. ‘Buddhism in the Kamakura Period’. In The Cambridge history of Japan: Medieval Japan. Edited by John W. Hall et. al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BXU2MSF6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BXU2MSF6 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 186,
            "polity": {
                "id": 143,
                "name": "jp_jomon_6",
                "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon",
                "start_year": -1200,
                "end_year": -300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Some of the archaeological evidence from the middle of this period demonstrates the transmission of elements from south Asian, southeast Asian, and south Pacific Island cultures. Jomon initiation rites that involved ritual tooth extraction and the custom of tattooing – apparent in the design of the dogu - were also practiced by southern peoples. In addition, it seems that the cultivation of taro root was introduced from these areas. The importation of taro root cultivation may have given rise to the belief in a \"guest\" kami or spirit (marebito), who was given credit for introducing this early form of agriculture. In prehistoric times, according to Orikuchi Shinobu, each village probably conducted yearly rites on a set day to welcome the guest kami from Tokoyo no Kuni, the Utopian land of boundless fertility across the sea. As a gift, the guest kami would bring a bountiful harvest, and he was also responsible for introducing and conducting coming-of-age ceremonies. Orikuchi finds evidence for his hypothesis in literary works of later times such as the Kojiki and the Man'yoshu, in extant New Year customs in the Tohoku region of Honshu, and in Okinawan harvest festivals hailing a visitor deity. Oka Masao points out the resemblance of these rites to those practiced in Melanesia, New Guinea, and elsewhere in the south Pacific. The masks unearthed from Middle Jomon sites might have been used by people who assumed the guest's role at festival times. In sum, the religious practices of the Jomon period probably involved fertility rites that acquired agrarian elements, many from other Asian and Pacific cultures, when cultivation was introduced.” §REF§ (Takaeshi 1993, 330-331) Takaeshi, M. 1993. ‘Early Kami Worship’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Edited by Delmer E. Brown. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FDFQIWT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5FDFQIWT </b></a> §REF§ “Instead, new ritual patterns were both stimulated by and used to negotiate the social changes that were affecting all parts of the Japanese archipelago at that time. A distinctive type of Final Jomon \"stone sword,\" for example, may have been derived from Chinese bronze prototype. First suggested in the 1920s, this hypothesis given further credence in 1954 with the discovery of just such a knife at Misakiyama in Yamagata (KASHIVWAKURA 1961). This 26 cm-long knife is thought to date from the late 2nd millennium BC. a ring-handled bronze knife of a type common in north China in Western Zhou. Although only one such bronze knife has been found Japan, there is a very strong resemblance between the Misakiyama and the curved stone swords which were so important in the Jomon (see NOMURA 1985, pp. 125-67) (fig. 2). Despite the real possibility that Final Jomon ritual was influenced increased contact with the continent, most Jomon ritual artifacts disappeared abruptly at the beginning of the Yayoi.” §REF§ (Hudson 1992, 142-143) Hudson, Mark J. 1992. ‘Rice, Bronze, and Chieftains: An Archaeology of Yayoi Ritual’. In Japanese Journal of Religious Studies: Archaeological Approaches to Ritual and Religion in Japan. Vol. 19: 2/3. Pp. 139-189. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJMPH4DF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NJMPH4DF </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 187,
            "polity": {
                "id": 147,
                "name": "jp_heian",
                "long_name": "Heian",
                "start_year": 794,
                "end_year": 1185
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“Under the influence of the Tendai and the Shingon schools, Shinto and Buddhism developed a unique pattern of coexistence, known as the Ryōbu-Shinto in the Shingon tradition or Sannō-Ichijitsu-Shinto in the Tendai tradition. Accordingly, Shinto kami were robbed of their distinctiveness and were not interpreted to be manifestations of Buddhas and bodhisattvas in Japanese forms.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 58) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Many Chinese magico-religious practices infiltrated Japan, such as the sacrifice of oxen, the worship of Heaven, and the veneration of the Pole Star.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 57) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“During the early Heian period cultural and religious influences continued to flow in from China, but they were quickly indigenized.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 54) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Toward the end of the seventh century the government urged Buddhist temples to secure private living quarters outside the temple compounds for the housing of sick and aged priests and nuns. Gradually this became the common pattern. […] One factor in this development can be traced to the ancient Shinto idea of keeping sickness and death from sacred places.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 57) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“By far the greatest influence was exerted on Shinto by Buddhism, especially by the two esoteric schools of Shingon and Tendai. As noted before, the trend toward the alliance and coexistence of Shinto and Buddhism can be traced to the Nara period. […] The idea that the kami’s original nature, Honji, was nothing but the Buddhahood gradually developed around the middle of the Heian period.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 68) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“[…] professional yama-bushi developed their own cults and their own brotherhood. Briefly stated, their cults combined some features of esoteric Buddhism, such as goma sacrifice, and some of Shinto, such as haraye (purification), and shoji (abstinence).” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 71) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“The first commingling of primitive shamanism with Yin-yang magic and Mantrayâna Buddhism appeared in the latter part of the Nara period and developed rapidly in the Heian.” §REF§ (Hori 1968, 93) Hori, Ichiro. 1968. Folk Religion in Japan. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G4ACW2ZM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G4ACW2ZM </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Japanese Buddhism appropriated religious features of the Confucian and Japanese ancestor cults.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 303) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 188,
            "polity": {
                "id": 151,
                "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
                "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
                "start_year": 1568,
                "end_year": 1603
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“The occasion for that was Xavier's second visit to Yamaguchi. There Shingon priests applauded his insistence on the primacy of Dainichi as the self-generated \"principle of all things,\" but their responses to his questions on the Trinity and on the Incarnation and Passion of Christ failed to satisfy him, and finally Xavier was enlightened. Having realized the gravity of his mistake, he sent Fernandez to preach in the streets that Dainichi and his religion were \"an invention of the devil”, as also were all the other sects of Japan. Not surprisingly, this provocation aroused the fury of Yamaguchi's Buddhist clergy. The Buddhists' protests merely underlined the fact that for the Jesuits, to establish Christian orthodoxy was, after all, their all- important mission. After this incident, the missionaries would disdain anything that smacked of syncretism and would preach the uncompromising law of Deus. As a result, the Japanese language was enriched with a great number of neologisms, catechetical terms derived from Latin or Portuguese.” §REF§ (Elisonas, 309-310) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Although syncretism was practiced from antiquity, the practice of distinguishing between the customs and forms of worship that could be performed at Shinto shrines and at Buddhist temples, as well as the compartmentalization of these two religions into separate religious spheres, was essentially a post- sixteenth-century phenomenon.” §REF§ (Masahide, 379) Masahide, Bito. 2008. ‘Thought and Religion 1550-1700’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8C4KQFQ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8C4KQFQ2 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 189,
            "polity": {
                "id": 150,
                "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
                "long_name": "Warring States Japan",
                "start_year": 1467,
                "end_year": 1568
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“Although syncretism was practiced from antiquity, the practice of distinguishing between the customs and forms of worship that could be performed at Shinto shrines and at Buddhist temples, as well as the compartmentalization of these two religions into separate religious spheres, was essentially a post- sixteenth-century phenomenon.” §REF§ (Masahide, 379) Masahide, Bito. 2008. ‘Thought and Religion 1550-1700’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8C4KQFQ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8C4KQFQ2 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 190,
            "polity": {
                "id": 149,
                "name": "jp_ashikaga",
                "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate",
                "start_year": 1336,
                "end_year": 1467
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“Whereas Dogen had rejected opportunities to proselytize, declaring that all who sincerely wished to practice Zen would find his community, Keizan and his successors seized every opportunity to take their teachings to the people. Whereas Dogen had avoided syncretism in the interest of preserving the centrality of zazen, his successors accepted into daily Soto practice the Tendai and Shingon texts and prayer ceremonies; Pure Land invocations; devotion to the kannon and to local mountain cults; and healing, exorcism, and funeral rites.” §REF§ (Collcutt, 647) Collcutt, Martin. 2008. ‘Zen and the gozan’. In Cambridge History of Japan: Medieval Japan. Edited by Kozo Yamamura. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9TV6ENUR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9TV6ENUR </b></a>§REF§ \r\n\r\n“During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, many Zen monks adopted the Pure Land practice of nembutsu. Some of these Pure Land influences came from medieval Japanese religion, in which devotion to Amida was a powerful current. Other influences came from China. One branch of Ch'an Buddhism during the Yuan and Ming dynasties combined an eremitic ideal with Pure Land devotion. A few Chinese monks of this school found their way to Japan. But many more Japanese monks who visited China in the fourteenth century adopted Pure Land beliefs. Muso was tolerant of the nembutsu teaching, regarding it as a means of approaching the deeper truth of Zen for those people who were not yet ready to commit themselves fully to zazen. Many of his followers thus recited the nembutsu as part of their daily Zen practice.” §REF§ (Collcutt, 650) Collcutt, Martin. 2008. ‘Zen and the gozan’. In Cambridge History of Japan: Medieval Japan. Edited by Kozo Yamamura. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9TV6ENUR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9TV6ENUR </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“It is well-known that even during Buddhism's apex in the medieval period Ise Shrine maintained ancient rites-whether uniquely Japanese or Taoist in origin-and upheld proscriptions against Buddhist terminology, practices, and garb. But it is equally important to realize that Ise Shrine did not completely reject Buddhism, for Buddhist priests would visit the shrine and Ise priests themselves possessed considerable knowledge of Buddhism. In this light, the proscription against anything Buddhist was probably regarded as a peculiar and mysterious practice, incomprehensible to society in general and even to the Shinto priests at Ise. §REF§ (Kuroda, 13) Kuroda, Toshio. 1981. ‘Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion’. In The Journal of Japanese Studies. Vol. 7. Pp. 1-21. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJ6PMUH9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZJ6PMUH9 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 191,
            "polity": {
                "id": 263,
                "name": "jp_nara",
                "long_name": "Nara Kingdom",
                "start_year": 710,
                "end_year": 794
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“A third new form grew out of the trend toward an interpenetration between, and amalgamation of, Shinto and Buddhism, whereby Shinto shrines found their way into the compound of Buddhist temples and Buddhist chapels were built within the precinct of Shinto shrines. The construction of Todaiji was enhanced by the alleged encouragement of the sun deity of the Grand Shrine of Ise and of the kami Hachiman of Usa Shrine, Kyushu. In fact, Hachiman was equated with a Buddhist bodhisattva. This Shinto-Buddhist amalgamation, which began in the eighth century and later came to be called Ryobu (“two aspects”) Shinto, remained the institutional norm until the late nineteenth century.” §REF§ (Kitagawa, 15) Kitagawa, Joseph. 1966. Japanese Religion. Columbia: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5H6CUE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Z5H6CUE8 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 192,
            "polity": {
                "id": 152,
                "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate",
                "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate",
                "start_year": 1603,
                "end_year": 1868
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“ […] by Tokugawa times so much borrowing had occurred between the various major religions that one can abstract out certain elements which are nearly universal and label these “Japanese religion”. In the national and family religions all the great religious traditions were represented and almost inseparably fused.” §REF§ (Bellah 1957, 59) Bellah, Robert. 1957. Tokugawa Religion. Glencoe: The Free Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7EWWEIP8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7EWWEIP8 </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“ […] almost every important new religious movement of the Tokugawa period showed a strong Confucian influence.” §REF§ (Bellah 1957, 59) Bellah, Robert. 1957. Tokugawa Religion. Glencoe: The Free Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7EWWEIP8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7EWWEIP8 </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“The hereditary priesthoods of these [Shintō] shrines, developed fairly elaborate theological systems with, of course, a considerable admixture of Buddhist and Confucian elements.” §REF§ (Bellah 1957, 53) Bellah, Robert. 1957. Tokugawa Religion. Glencoe: The Free Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7EWWEIP8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7EWWEIP8 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 193,
            "polity": {
                "id": 146,
                "name": "jp_asuka",
                "long_name": "Asuka",
                "start_year": 538,
                "end_year": 710
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“In retrospect it becomes evident that while Prince Shōtoku was a pious Buddhist, the policies ascribed to him – as exemplified both by the establishment of the Chinese-style “cap ranks” of twelve-grades for court ministers and officials and by the promulgation of the so-called “Seventeen-Article Constitution” – represented a serious attempt to harmonize Buddhist and Confucian traditions with the native Shinto tradition.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 107) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“ […] the practice of reciting Shinto prayers (Norito) was modelled on Buddhist practices of scripture recitation […]” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 108) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Japanese Buddhists attempted to interpret and appropriate the historic tradition of Buddhism in terms of their particular religious heritage as well as their concrete experiences, and in this process a new form of Buddhist tradition that is more directly relevant to the Japanese world of meaning came into existence.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 209) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 194,
            "polity": {
                "id": 525,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early",
                "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I",
                "start_year": -500,
                "end_year": -300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The symbolism and many of the rituals that defined the ceremonial center were new to the Valley of Oaxaca, although evidence suggests that the founders of Monte Albán drew on established ideas from other parts of Mesoamerica (J. E. Clark 2001; A. Joyce 2004:201–2; Winter 2006: 229–31). Although centers such as La Venta, Chalcatzingo, and Chiapa de Corzo were in decline at this time, ideas and practices that defined relations between people and the divine were carried forward in altered form by the Zapotecs of Monte Albán. Similarities in spatial organization and symbolism suggest that Zapotecs appropriated ideas about sacred space from those earlier centers (J. E. Clark 2001). For example, Chalcatzingo like Monte Albán is aligned along a north–south axis with references to rulers/ancestors to the north and themes of sacrifice and fertility to the south (Grove 1999). Monte Albán also resembled La Venta and Chiapa de Corzo in having large plazas demarcated by a pyramid or tall platform to the north and lower linear mounds on at least one side (J. E. Clark 2001). Ballcourts and the ballgame are found in other parts of Mesoamerica long before they appear in Oaxaca. Zapotec hieroglyphic writing and rain-god imagery show similarities with Olmec examples from the Gulf coast (Covarrubias 1946; Urcid 2002). Like the Zapotecs at Monte Albán, the Olmec depicted rain-god impersonators associated with high status and sacrifice (Coe 1972). Rain and cloud symbols found at Monte Albán occur in earlier iconography at Chalcatzingo and among the Olmec (Sellen 2002: 11; Taube 1996:97). The evidence suggests that the construction of the Main Plaza was an exercise in place-making that materialized a new corporate identity in the Valley of Oaxaca centered on Monte Albán. This identity was embodied in new deities and rituals, including warfare-dependant human sacrifice. Though most of these symbols and practices first occur in the Valley of Oaxaca at San José Mogote during the late Rosario phase, they were foregrounded in the initial construction of the new ceremonial center at Monte Albán. Since novel deities and rituals characterized later millennial movements in Mesoamerica (Gruzinski 1989; Monaghan 1994; Ringle et al. 1998), it is possible that Monte Albán was founded by adherents of a new social and religious movement in reaction to the political crisis of the late Middle Formative.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 139-141) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 195,
            "polity": {
                "id": 526,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late",
                "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": -100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The symbolism and many of the rituals that defined the ceremonial center were new to the Valley of Oaxaca, although evidence suggests that the founders of Monte Albán drew on established ideas from other parts of Mesoamerica (J. E. Clark 2001; A. Joyce 2004:201–2; Winter 2006: 229–31). Although centers such as La Venta, Chalcatzingo, and Chiapa de Corzo were in decline at this time, ideas and practices that defined relations between people and the divine were carried forward in altered form by the Zapotecs of Monte Albán. Similarities in spatial organization and symbolism suggest that Zapotecs appropriated ideas about sacred space from those earlier centers (J. E. Clark 2001). For example, Chalcatzingo like Monte Albán is aligned along a north–south axis with references to rulers/ancestors to the north and themes of sacrifice and fertility to the south (Grove 1999). Monte Albán also resembled La Venta and Chiapa de Corzo in having large plazas demarcated by a pyramid or tall platform to the north and lower linear mounds on at least one side (J. E. Clark 2001). Ballcourts and the ballgame are found in other parts of Mesoamerica long before they appear in Oaxaca. Zapotec hieroglyphic writing and rain-god imagery show similarities with Olmec examples from the Gulf coast (Covarrubias 1946; Urcid 2002). Like the Zapotecs at Monte Albán, the Olmec depicted rain-god impersonators associated with high status and sacrifice (Coe 1972). Rain and cloud symbols found at Monte Albán occur in earlier iconography at Chalcatzingo and among the Olmec (Sellen 2002: 11; Taube 1996:97). The evidence suggests that the construction of the Main Plaza was an exercise in place-making that materialized a new corporate identity in the Valley of Oaxaca centered on Monte Albán. This identity was embodied in new deities and rituals, including warfare-dependant human sacrifice. Though most of these symbols and practices first occur in the Valley of Oaxaca at San José Mogote during the late Rosario phase, they were foregrounded in the initial construction of the new ceremonial center at Monte Albán. Since novel deities and rituals characterized later millennial movements in Mesoamerica (Gruzinski 1989; Monaghan 1994; Ringle et al. 1998), it is possible that Monte Albán was founded by adherents of a new social and religious movement in reaction to the political crisis of the late Middle Formative.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 139-141) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 196,
            "polity": {
                "id": 791,
                "name": "bd_khadga_dyn",
                "long_name": "Khadga Dynasty",
                "start_year": 650,
                "end_year": 700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Although religious specialists such as Xuanzang clearly distinguished between traditions, we do not know to what extent ordinary believers in Bangladesh understood these religious forms as separate or as an amalgamated whole. Neither do we know how these forms interacted with pre-existing religions or to what extent they spread beyond urban centres. It is clear, however, that very gradually many local deities became incorporated into the Sanskritic religions, giving these a particular regional flavour. One distinct regional feature is the persisting popularity of powerful female deities: Monosha (manasā), who protects worshippers against snakebites, Chondi (candī), the goddess of forest life and hunting, Shitola (śītalā), who guards against smallpox, and the fierce and vengeful Kali (kāli).\"§REF§(Van Schendel 2009: 26-27) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JD6ZB9SG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JD6ZB9SG </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 197,
            "polity": {
                "id": 792,
                "name": "in_kanva_dyn",
                "long_name": "Magadha - Kanva Dynasty",
                "start_year": -75,
                "end_year": -30
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Although religious specialists such as Xuanzang clearly distinguished between traditions, we do not know to what extent ordinary believers in Bangladesh understood these religious forms as separate or as an amalgamated whole. Neither do we know how these forms interacted with pre-existing religions or to what extent they spread beyond urban centres. It is clear, however, that very gradually many local deities became incorporated into the Sanskritic religions, giving these a particular regional flavour. One distinct regional feature is the persisting popularity of powerful female deities: Monosha (manasā), who protects worshippers against snakebites, Chondi (candī), the goddess of forest life and hunting, Shitola (śītalā), who guards against smallpox, and the fierce and vengeful Kali (kāli).\" (Van Schendel 2009: 26-27)"
        },
        {
            "id": 198,
            "polity": {
                "id": 793,
                "name": "bd_sena_dyn",
                "long_name": "Sena Dynasty",
                "start_year": 1095,
                "end_year": 1245
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Although religious specialists such as Xuanzang clearly distinguished between traditions, we do not know to what extent ordinary believers in Bangladesh understood these religious forms as separate or as an amalgamated whole. Neither do we know how these forms interacted with pre-existing religions or to what extent they spread beyond urban centres. It is clear, however, that very gradually many local deities became incorporated into the Sanskritic religions, giving these a particular regional flavour. One distinct regional feature is the persisting popularity of powerful female deities: Monosha (manasā), who protects worshippers against snakebites, Chondi (candī), the goddess of forest life and hunting, Shitola (śītalā), who guards against smallpox, and the fierce and vengeful Kali (kāli).\" §REF§ (Van Schendel 2009: 26-27) Van Schendel, William. 2009. A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 199,
            "polity": {
                "id": 781,
                "name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
                "long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
                "start_year": 1717,
                "end_year": 1757
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In analysing Bangladesh society, writers overwhelmingly privilege ‘Muslim’ and ‘Hindu’ as mutually exclusive, oppositional and monolithic terms. It is crucial to recognise that there has always been strong cultural resistance in Bangladesh to such bipolar categorisation, not only with regard to social stereotyping but also at the most basic religious level.”§REF§ Van Schendel, W. (2009). A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge University Press, 37. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JD6ZB9SG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JD6ZB9SG </b></a> §REF§  There was a long process of ‘harmonizing’ Hinduism and indigenous cults, from around the thirteenth century through the sultanate period, which involved both official and popular adoption/incorporation of different deities and religious practices. “As elsewhere in India, there arose in Bengal a need to harmonize Vedic religion, which focused on male deities, with indigenous Indian cults, in which female deities dominated.” […] “By the late sixteenth century, while the ecstatic spirit of Chaitanya’s devotional movement was still vibrant, the upper castes had already begun to ally themselves with the movement in the process redefining it along orthodox lines. In subsequent centuries, Vaishnava piety, though originating in cities, would make deep inroads among Begal’s Hindu artisan and cultivating castes.” §REF§ Eaton, R. M. (1996). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press, 103 &amp; 112. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UFZ2JWS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UFZ2JWS8 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 200,
            "polity": {
                "id": 794,
                "name": "in_vanga_k",
                "long_name": "Vanga Dynasty",
                "start_year": 550,
                "end_year": 600
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Although religious specialists such as Xuanzang clearly distinguished between traditions, we do not know to what extent ordinary believers in Bangladesh understood these religious forms as separate or as an amalgamated whole. Neither do we know how these forms interacted with pre-existing religions or to what extent they spread beyond urban centres. It is clear, however, that very gradually many local deities became incorporated into the Sanskritic religions, giving these a particular regional flavour. One distinct regional feature is the persisting popularity of powerful female deities: Monosha (manasā), who protects worshippers against snakebites, Chondi (candī), the goddess of forest life and hunting, Shitola (śītalā), who guards against smallpox, and the fierce and vengeful Kali (kāli).\"§REF§(Van Schendel 2009: 26-27) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JD6ZB9SG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JD6ZB9SG </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 201,
            "polity": {
                "id": 795,
                "name": "bd_yadava_varman_dyn",
                "long_name": "Yadava-Varman Dynasty",
                "start_year": 1080,
                "end_year": 1150
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Although religious specialists such as Xuanzang clearly distinguished between traditions, we do not know to what extent ordinary believers in Bangladesh understood these religious forms as separate or as an amalgamated whole. Neither do we know how these forms interacted with pre-existing religions or to what extent they spread beyond urban centres. It is clear, however, that very gradually many local deities became incorporated into the Sanskritic religions, giving these a particular regional flavour. One distinct regional feature is the persisting popularity of powerful female deities: Monosha (manasā), who protects worshippers against snakebites, Chondi (candī), the goddess of forest life and hunting, Shitola (śītalā), who guards against smallpox, and the fierce and vengeful Kali (kāli).\" §REF§ (Van Schendel 2009: 26-27) Van Schendel, William. 2009. A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 202,
            "polity": {
                "id": 780,
                "name": "bd_chandra_dyn",
                "long_name": "Chandra Dynasty",
                "start_year": 900,
                "end_year": 1050
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“...at that period Buddhism and Brahmanism had settled down more or less in union, each taking something of the other.”§REF§Chowdhury. 1965. \"Dynastic History Of Bengal (C. 750-1200 A.D.)\". PhD, University of London: 258-259. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BSB9HGAR </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 203,
            "polity": {
                "id": 587,
                "name": "gb_british_emp_1",
                "long_name": "British Empire I",
                "start_year": 1690,
                "end_year": 1849
            },
            "year_from": 1800,
            "year_to": 1849,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "For example: “Yoruba veneration of and identification with ancestors (as in the masked spirits of Egungun), the spatialized notion of religion in the community  (as in the sacred centre-akata- of a town quarter), the hierarchies of seniority and authority (as in the institution of the king -oba- and the mass of subordinated title-holders), and a host of other cultural signifiers were assigned reformulated significance in light of Chrisitan belief.”  §REF§ (Mccaskie 1999: 669-682) Mccaskie, T.C. 1999. ‘Cultural Encounters: Britain and Africa in the Nineteenth Century. In The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century. Edited by Andrew Porter. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ED2JBV35\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ED2JBV35 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 204,
            "polity": {
                "id": 782,
                "name": "bd_twelve_bhuyans",
                "long_name": "Twelve Bhuyans",
                "start_year": 1538,
                "end_year": 1612
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Theo_sync_dif_rel",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The following quote may imply that “un-Islamic ideas and practices” were present in the Twelve Bhuyans. This may refer to Hinduism, and/or locally or tribal-based religions. “Emperor Akbar conquered Bengal in 1576, but the Mughal rule was opposed in the province by the zamindars who were called the Bara Bhuyans. It was in the reign of Jahangir that his subahdar Islam Khan subjected the Bara Bhuyans and established the Mughal rule in Bengal. In 1609 Islam Khan shifted the capital of the province from Rajmahal to Dacca and named it Jahangirnagar. The incorporation of Bengal into the Mughal Empire re-established its connection with the rest of the subcontinent. The outer world came to Bengal and Bengal went out of itself to the outer world. The Mughal rule opened Bengal to the fresh stream of cultural influences from Central and Western Asia. There was a wider diffusion of the Persian language, literature and medicine in Bengal. The immense wealth of the Persian literature enriched the Bengali literature. The Mughal rule was an age of learning and culture. Education made unprecedented progress in this period. In art and architecture, Bengal was much influenced by the Mughal style. The monuments at Dacca bear testimony to this fact. The Mughal culture dominated the life in Bengal. The Mughal dress, etiquettes and forms became the fashion of the time in the province. Heterodox mysticism, such as Faqirism and Baul, was a striking feature of the social and cultural life in Bengal in the Mughal period, particularly in the later phase. The majority of the sufis, who were illiterate, succumbed to the Hindu mystic influences and heterodoxy prevailed in the society. There were however some sufis in Bengal who devoted themselves to the work of divesting the society of all un-Islamic ideas and practices and reviving orthodox sufism. They were the disciples of Mujaddad-i-Alf-i-Thani. The Bengali literature of the time represents ideas of heterodox mysticism as well as of the Mujaddidia mission. The Faqirism, Baul and the Mujaddidia ideas offered themes for the production of a rich literature in Bengali to the poets of the time.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 211–212. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§ There was a long process of ‘harmonizing’ Hinduism and indigenous cults, from around the thirteenth century through the sultanate period, which involved both official and popular adoption/incorporation of different deities and religious practices. “As elsewhere in India, there arose in Bengal a need to harmonize Vedic religion, which focused on male deities, with indigenous Indian cults, in which female deities dominated.” […] “By the late sixteenth century, while the ecstatic spirit of Chaitanya’s devotional movement was still vibrant, the upper castes had already begun to ally themselves with the movement in the process redefining it along orthodox lines. In subsequent centuries, Vaishnava piety, though originating in cities, would make deep inroads among Begal’s Hindu artisan and cultivating castes.” §REF§ Eaton, R. M. (1996). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press, 103 &amp; 112.  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UFZ2JWS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UFZ2JWS8 </b></a> §REF§ “The ideas and practices of Yoga, Tantric and Natha cults all gained popularity across both these main religious communities. Some Muslims produced literature that drew on Vaishnava themes, and others recognized the Vedas as books sent by God, or claimed that Yoga was also taught by Prophet Muhammad.” §REF§ Bhardwaj, D. S. K. (2010). Contesting Identities in Bangladesh: A Study of Secular and Religious Frontiers. LSE Asia Research Centre Working Papers, 27, 7. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JB8CCJKK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JB8CCJKK </b></a> §REF§"
        }
    ]
}