Sync Rel Pra Ind Beli List
A viewset for viewing and editing Syncretism of Religious Practices at the Level of Individual Believers.
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{ "count": 272, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/syncretism-of-religious-practices-at-the-level-of-individual-believers/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/syncretism-of-religious-practices-at-the-level-of-individual-believers/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The most famous example of Carolingians attempting to define popular non-Christian religion is the weather magic condemned by Archbishop Agobard of Lyons. Agobard was a Spaniard – a conspicuous outsider in the Frankish north – educated at the court of Charlemagne and frequently embroiled in controversy. As archbishop of Lyons, he once had fraudsters from Magonia (‘Magic Land’, from the word magia) arrested after they had taken payment from villagers to stop thunder and hail. It is the challenge to scripture that upset Agobard most: ‘so much stupidity has already oppressed the wretched world that Christians now believe things so absurd that no one ever before could persuade the pagans to believe them, even though these pagans were ignorant of the Creator of all things’. Here folk practices are reduced to ignorance and stupidity, with paganism highlighted as positively civilized by comparison.” §REF§ Palmer, J. (2007) pg 406. Defining paganism in the Carolingian world. Early Medieval Europe, 15: 402-425. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0254.2007.00214.x §REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“The Late Archaic and initial Formative of the central highlands of Mexico are still poorly understood. Niederberger (1976, 1979) found evidence for year-round exploitation of the lake environment at Tlapacoya-Zohapilco around 2500-2000 B.C., suggestive of early sedentism tied to abundant natural resources. There is not, however, evidence for large Late Archaic populations, sedentary or otherwise, and indeed, the Formative is likewise poorly known before approximately 1400 B.C. The Nevada phase in the basin is identified primarily from Zohapilco. The best record of pre-1400 B.C settlement comes from lower-lying areas of Morelos and Puebla (Aviles 1997; Cyphers Guillen and Grove 1987; Grove 1974; Hirth 1987). It is only with Manantial and related phases beginning circa 1150 B.C. (2950 B.P. in radiocarbon years) that occupation is documented across much of central Mexico (e.g., Aufdermauer 1973; Niederberger 1987; Ramirez et al. 2000; Tolstoy 1989).” §REF§ (Lesure et al. 2006, 475-476) Lesure et al. 2006. ‘Chronology, Subsistence, and the Earliest Formative of Central Tlaxcala, Mexico’. Latin American Antiquity. Vol. 17:4. Pp. 474-492. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMXH6V7V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMXH6V7V </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“The archaeological record of the Archaic period (ca. 8000–2000 BC) is still very fragmentary, and this hinders understanding both of the change from foraging societies to kin-based villages and of the development of early hierarchical polities.” §REF§ (Nichols & Pool 2012, 13) Nichols, Deborah L. and Pool, Christopher A. 2012. ‘Mesoamerican Archaeology: Recent Trends’. In The Oxford handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Edited by Deborah L. Nichols and Christopher A. Pool. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I2EHZSUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I2EHZSUW </b></a> §REF§ “Even greater difficulties are faced when it comes to reconstructing social organization, ceremonialism, and ideology from the archaeological traces of people whose material manifestations of these phenomena, even where preserved, were very limited.” §REF§ (Zeitlin & Zeitlin 2000, 50) Zeitlin Robert N. and Zeitlin Judith Francis. 2000. ‘The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica’. In The Cambridge History of the native People of the Americas. Vol II: Mesoamerica. Part I. Edited by Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. MacLeod. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C6KJ9FU9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C6KJ9FU9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "Within the Mesoamerican context, syncretism before the advent of Christianity did not involve the melding of distinct religious traditions, but rather of local variants of the same shared set of beliefs and practices. At the same time, it is worth noting that several issues related to religious beliefs and practices that are very difficult to reconstruct based on the available sources.§REF§summary of Jesper Nielsen’s pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni via Zoom conversation, May 10 2024. Summary approved by Jesper Nielsen via email on May 14, 2024.§REF§", "description": "“It is extremely difficult to ascertain the precise nature of Mexica society prior to their sudden rise to imperial power in 1428, despite numerous descriptions in the chronicles and codices. In some instances, later chronicles unconvincingly projected back in time the political and social structure of the imperial age. In other cases, codices and histories portray the early Mexica with an almost Rousseauian nostalgia, describing them as a rustic group with a totally egalitarian social and political structure. Again, the inconsistencies may be partly the result of the Mexica imperial elite’s later rewriting of history. Yet much of the contradictory nature of the evidence on the early Mexica is due to the dynamic nature of their development; Mexica political and social institutions were probably undergoing continuous change in response to their varying fortunes and their rapid cultural evolution. Specific characterizations would only apply to a particular moment in time. However, given the near-absence of relevant archaeological data, the chronology of Mexica evolution can only be assumed on a very general level. The situation is exacerbated by accounts which confuse the features of earlier and later institutions and by fifteenth- century state propagandists’ attempts to create historical precedents or allegorical justifications for the new imperial order.” §REF§ (Conrad 1984, 23) Conrad, Geoffrey. 1984. Religion and empire: the dynamics of Aztec and Inca expansionism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BGTJ339C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BGTJ339C </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "Within the Mesoamerican context, syncretism before the advent of Christianity did not involve the melding of distinct religious traditions, but rather of local variants of the same shared set of beliefs and practices. At the same time, it is worth noting that several issues related to religious beliefs and practices that are very difficult to reconstruct based on the available sources.§REF§summary of Jesper Nielsen’s pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni via Zoom conversation, May 10 2024. Summary approved by Jesper Nielsen via email on May 14, 2024.§REF§", "description": "The following quote suggests that subject populations were allowed to continue practicing pre-conquest rituals. “The following paper is a comprehensive analysis of the possible functions that Toxcatl had played in various places and it serves as a synthesis of the aspects and themes addressed during this festival. It had been a religious spectacle characterized by an elaborate performance and honoring important Mesoamerican deities. Furthermore, several cities and towns mentioned in the early colonial sources describing the rituals of Toxcatl used this ceremony to broadcast their communal identity and heritage within the multiethnic Aztec Empire through the involvement of local cults of patron deities. In the city of Tenochtitlan Toxcatl presented an opportunity to reaffirm the connection between the gods and the elected ruler, to define the nature of the ruler's office and the legitimacy of his power.” §REF§ (Wilkosz 2014, 8) Wilkosz, Izabela. 2014. Power, Performance and Propaganda – Sociopolitical Aspects of the Aztec Feast of Toxcatl. PhD Thesis. Berlin: Freien Universität Berlin. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/223JJMM6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 223JJMM6 </b></a> §REF§ The following quote notes the distinction between religious worship at a community level, and at the level of the state cult; ultimately, though, it seems reasonable to see the two as part of the same broader Mexica religion. “The contrasting spheres of religion (i.e., daily life in the calpultin vs. at large public venues) are clearly perceptible in the historical sources (López Austin and López Luján 2005:211–215, 240–246). On the one hand was the communitary worship in each of the small urban districts that were like neighborhoods where groups of relatives and people dedicated to the same productive tasks resided. There they worshipped the calpulteotl, or local patron, who had delegated a specific profession to his followers. They dedicated prayers and offerings in the hopes of meeting the needs of the calpolli: family, school, career, and so on. On the other hand, the state cult, as we have seen, was sponsored by the supremegovernment to promote the great divinities, like Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca, and Xipe Totec, to ensure the well-being of all people living under the empire as well as its agricultural and military success (Figure 43.6). The two forms of worship were subject to the overarching ritual calendar. The community cult of the calpultin largely followed the tonalpohualli (divinatory cycle of 260 days divided into 20 periods of 13 days each). Meanwhile, the state religion followed the xiuhpohualli (agricultural cycle of 365 days organized into 18 periods of 20 days each plus five unlucky days), with the priest Epcoacuacuilli leading liturgy from the Sacred Precinct (Sahagún 1951:194). Even though the calpultin and the state religion followed different calendars, both forms of worship recognized festivities during both cycles. For example, certain precinct temples, like the Tetlanma, Chicomecoatl Iteopan, and Tulnahuac, were clearly linked to the tonalpohualli; the names of other temples, like the Macuilcipactli, Macuilcalli, Macuilmalinalli, and Macuilquiahuitl, refer to specific days of that cycle (Sahagún 1951:166, 170, 175).” §REF§ (López Austin & López Luján 2017, 612-613) López Austin, Alfredo and Leonardo López Luján. 2017. ‘State Ritual and Religion in the Sacred Precinct of Tenochtitlan’. In The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs. Edited by Deborah L. Nichols and Enrique Rodríquez-Alegría. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8NZ5DPEN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8NZ5DPEN </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "Within the Mesoamerican context, syncretism before the advent of Christianity did not involve the melding of distinct religious traditions, but rather of local variants of the same shared set of beliefs and practices. At the same time, it is worth noting that several issues related to religious beliefs and practices that are very difficult to reconstruct based on the available sources.§REF§summary of Jesper Nielsen’s pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni via Zoom conversation, May 10 2024. Summary approved by Jesper Nielsen via email on May 14, 2024.§REF§", "description": "“Nevertheless, it is possible that the practice of human sacrifice here was connected to broader patterns of politics and ritual practice during the Epiclassic in central Mexico. Fournier and Vargas Sanders (2002:49-50), for instance, describe remarkably similar sacrificial deposits that date to the Epiclassic period at Chapatongo in the Tula region, north of the Xaltocan lake zone. The crania of 12 individuals were recovered from an irregularly constructed altar at the site. Similar to the materials from Non-Grid 4, these crania were associated with cervical vertebra and finger bones (as well as foot bones). The integration of human sacrifice into the rituals of Non-Grid 4 might represent the active reworking of ritual practices and symbolic acts from traditions of multiple groups with historical connections to Teotihuacán. §REF§ (Morehart et al. 2012, 442) Morehart, Christopher T. et al. 2012. ‘Human Sacrifice During the Epiclassic Period in the Northern Basin of Mexico’. In Latin American Antiquity. Vol 23:4. Pp. 426-448. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ZT27ZC2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ZT27ZC2 </b></a> §REF§ “Shared ritual practices at Late Classic sites reinforced widely shared Mesoamerican religious concepts, while simultaneously providing a venue for social cohesion and statements of power. Religious rituals, by necessity, are deliberately anachronistic and imply continuity with past traditions (Fogelin 2007:57). Late Classic ritual practitioners actively perpetuated prior traditions, such as those pertaining to rain-bringing, the ballgame, and human sacrifice. However, they added and combined elements, and often manipulated the scale of such practices, perhaps in effort to impress and instill a sense of unity among ethnically diverse populations. Through public ritual, Late Classic elites could also express their authority, might, and proximity to the supernatural. While the successes they achieved during the tumultuous Late Classic period were brief, they set a foundation for state ritual practices of the later Toltecs and Aztecs.” §REF§ (Turner 2015, 208-209) Turner, Andrew David. 2015. Cultures at the Crossroads: Art, Religion, and Interregional Interaction in Central Mexico, AD 600-900. PhD Dissertation. Riverside: University of California. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZ5ACP74\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZ5ACP74 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "\"The practice of religion among the subaltern is extremely difficult to reconstruct. The Zoroastrian fire altars tended to be instruments of the elite, but I don’t think there’s much evidence for everyone else below that top layer.\" (Lee Patterson, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, December 2023)", "description": "“His [Mani’s] religious system was by all accounts dualistic and, as Mani himself explains in the Šabuhragan, based on the two principles (dw bwn). Thus this system was dualistic and used Zoroastrian terminology to propagate its message to those who were familiar with Zoroastrian deities and doctrine. This should also give us another clue as to the importance and popularity of Zoroastrianism in the third century. It does not mean, however, that this was the Zoroastrianism of the Sasanians and it appears to be unlikely that in such a short span of time the population of the Iranian plateau was to have become familiar with the Sasanian brand of Zoroastrianism. Consequently we must suspect that Mani propagated his message to the Iranian population who believed in Ohrmazd and other Zoroastrian/Mazdean deities (such as Mihr/Mithra who has an important function in Manichaeism) and who were not altogether accepting of the particular doctrinal nuances espoused by the Sasanians and the religious establishment which now attached itself to the state.” §REF§ (Daryaee 2014, 73) Touraj Daryaee 2014. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London, England: I.B. Tauris. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ETDRZZE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ETDRZZE </b></a> §REF§ “We should turn back to Kerdir and discuss the second significance of his inscriptions in the third century. This has to do with his religious mission and his journey to the other world to find out matters about the true religion and the correct way in rites and ritual. In his inscription he has a fascinating account of his vision of heaven, hell and purgatory. F. Grenet has, however, suggested that the idea that Kerdir himself had made the journey is wrong and placed someone else, a young boy (rahıg) in a squatting position (nisast) to have the vision. M. Schwartz has shown that this vision of the other world was made possible through the reciting of the mantra while the young boy stared into a mirror (ewen mahr). This method of divination is not Iranian in origin and is found in the Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity, and thus it demonstrates a foreign borrowing by the Zoroastrian priesthood in the early Sasanian period. This fact suggests that Zoroastrian ritual and tradition had not yet been formed and was susceptible to foreign influence.” §REF§ (Daryaee 2014, 80) Touraj Daryaee 2014. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London, England: I.B. Tauris. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ETDRZZE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ETDRZZE </b></a> §REF§ “Shabuhr, the King of Kings, son of Ardashir, further collected the nonreligious writings on medicine, astronomy, movement, time, space, substance, accident, becoming, decay, transformation, logic and other crafts and skills which were dispersed throughout India, Rome and other lands, and collated them with the Avesta, and commanded that a copy be made of all those writings which were flawless and be deposited in the Royal Treasury. And he put forward for deliberation the annexation of all those pure teachings to the Mazdean religion. This passage is important in that it tells us that the king ordered that ideas should be drawn from Greek and Indian sciences and incorporated into the Avesta. Thus, the Sasanian Avesta was a melange of ideas and learning from the world which seemed useful or in accordance with the Zoroastrianism in which Shabuhr believed or was creating.” §REF§ (Daryaee 2014, 83) Touraj Daryaee 2014. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London, England: I.B. Tauris. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ETDRZZE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ETDRZZE </b></a> §REF§ “That is why Shabuhr I may have liked Mani’s religious syncretism and universalism, and was to live peacefully under the next king as well.” §REF§ (Daryaee 2014, 74) Touraj Daryaee 2014. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London, England: I.B. Tauris. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5ETDRZZE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5ETDRZZE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"A comparative study of Elymaean religious iconography supports the view that the Elymaeans worshipped Semitic gods of Babylon and Assyria, possibly in syncretization with traditional Elamite deities (Hansman, 1985, pp. 229-46).\" §REF§ Hansman 1998. Elymais. Encyclopedia Iranica Online. Available at https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elymais (last consulted February 6, 2023). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C2GQDMMV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C2GQDMMV </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“[…] some Zoroastrians would follow one another in conversion in order to remain a part of the same community. Many of these converts did not know much about Islam and would end up mixing bits and pieces of it with their former religion. This led to religious identity ambiguity, where Persians would use whichever identity best suited them, given the social situation at hand.” §REF§(Kepler 2018, 102) Kepler, Travis. 2018. ‘Zoroastrians: Becoming a Minority in their Homeland’. Danesh: The OU Undergraduate Journal of Iranian Studies. Vol.3. Pp. 95-109. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXGRVJTV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KXGRVJTV </b></a>§REF§ “It has thus recently been shown how non-Muslims could resort to Islamic law when their interests were better served by it, rather than calling on their own communal jurisdictions. Moreover, religiously mixed families and intermarriages contributed to shape a much more complex image of societies, not fully bound by the lines dividing religious communities.” §REF§Borrut and Donner 2016, 1) Borrut, Antoine and Donner, Fred. 2016. ‘Introduction: Christians and Others in the Umayyad State’. In Christians and Others in the Umayyad State. Edited by Antoine Borrut and Fred Donner. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTFIAE6S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RTFIAE6S </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The following seems to suggest that some groups worshipped both their own gods and the Jewish one. Moreover, it suggests that the inhabitants of the Assyrian empire were required to worship their rulers' gods, but that they were also allowed to continue worshipping their own. As the following quotes suggest, evidence of syncretism can be inferred across different religions in various regions of the empire. “While it appears that Assyrian provincials were required in some fashion to worship Ashur and the other Assyrian gods, it is notable that very few Neo-Assyrian texts mention this, and that the Hebrew Bible suggests that, at least in Sāmerīna, Israelites who escaped deportation carried on with Yahweh worship, and newly resettled foreigners maintained devotion to their own national deities and partook in the Yahweh cult.” §REF§ (Miller 2009, 146) Miller, Daniel R. 2009. ‘Objectives and Consequences of the Neo-Assyrian Imperial Exercise.’ Religion & Theology. Vol 16 (3-4): 124–149. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F4NC563H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F4NC563H </b></a> §REF§ “The Sidonians were religiously conservative. When they joined forces with the Ionians, as may be gathered from the Hassan Beyli inscription, they swore an oath by Heaven and Earth. Their God was ʾEshmun (ʾšmn), “Expiator,” who removed the evil or guilt causing illness and death and who consequently was also known as the “Spirit of Healing” (šdrpʾ) and the patron of the immortal dead (rpʾm). At ʿAmrit in the fifth century, his cult revolved around lustral rites, and a contemporary inscription from Sidon mentions a “Temple of ʾEshmun, the Holy Spirit, at the spring Yadlul, in the mountains” (bt lʾšmn šd qdš ʿn ydll bhr). These rites were observed at least from the eighth century onward, when the Assyrian administrator Qurdi- Ashur-Lamur had to intervene when his tax-collector, in a fit of pique over Sidonian reluctance to pay their taxes, cut the aqueduct bringing water from the mountain to the temple in Sidon. ʾEshmun was a civic God, the God of Sidon and its citizens: his worship was peculiar to the city and was translated to other towns only by particular syncretisms, as in the cult of ʾEshmun-Melqart in Kition or by the later tendency to rationalize, simplify, and universalize pantheons. §REF§ (Peckham 2014, 183-184) Peckham, Brian J. 2014. Phoenicia: Episodes and Anecdotes from the Ancient Mediterranean. University Park: Penn State University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9MQ9KNTH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9MQ9KNTH </b></a> §REF§ “The Deuteronomistic History (DtrH) depicts the religious customs ascribed to Manasseh (2 Kgs 21 :2-9) and proscribed by Josiah (2 Kgs 23:4-20) as the practices of the nations whom Israel dispossessed (2 Kgs 21:2, 9, 11). They are not regarded as importations from the Mesopotamian world. This perception is re-inforced by the fact that the DtrH ignores Assyrian domination over Judah accounts in its accounts of the seventh century. Needless to say, a great deal of skepticism been registered about the positions taken by the writer(s) of the DtrH. It is abundantly clear that Hezehiah did not remove the yoke of Assyrian servitude. Both archaeological evidence and extrabiblical sources show that Assyria’s hold over Judah increased after Hezekiah’s abortive and disastrous rebellion against Senncherib. Manasseh appears to have been a loyal, lifelong client of Assyria, according to cuneiform texts. Throughout this period, the political entities and cultures surrounding Judah became home to a cosmopolitan population in which the Assyrian administrative apparatus was active. Juda’s ethnic counterpart and neighbor, the northern kingdom of Israel, was completely absorbed into the Assyrian province system by 720. Moreover, there is a strong possibility that during Mannaseh’s time an Assyrian official was lodged in Judah’s court as a liaison between the empire and the client kingdom centered on Jerusalem. Given such an atmosphere, the possibility of syncretism with Assyrian religion has suggested itself to many modern commentators.” §REF§ (Morrow 2013, 54-55) Morrow, William S. 2013. ‘Were There Neo-Assyrian Influences in Manasseh's Temple? Comparative Evidence from Tel-Miqne/Ekron.’ The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. Vol 75 (1): 53-73. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C8GHCGKJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C8GHCGKJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 703, "name": "in_kalabhra_dyn", "long_name": "Kalabhra Dynasty", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.” §REF§ (Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§ (Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“As in the case of Hindu temples, devotees of all creeds and denominations flocked to the Muslim pilgrimage centres, giving further emphasis to the argument of blurred or practically non-existent lines of community identity.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9SKWNUF4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9SKWNUF4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 699, "name": "in_thanjavur_maratha_k", "long_name": "Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom", "start_year": 1675, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The Islamic people’s peaceful co-existence with Hindus was very much perceptible in the period and they could not maintain their own identity. I was due to the fact that Islam in the Tanjore region was influenced by the native Tamils. For example saint worship is popular in the Tamil region whereas the Tamil Muslims had their faith in their worship of Pirs. Many of the Islamic festivals were identical of the Hindu festivals. Islam, in the region followed and celebrated the festivals like the Kanduri festival in all parts of the Tanjore region. Like the Hindus, the Islamic people took a procession during the Allah festival. It was very popular among the Hindus.” §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2004, 373) Chinnaiyan, S. 2004 ‘Royal Patronage to Islam in Tanjore Maratha Kingdom [As Gleaned from Modi Records].’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 65. Pp 370-374. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H5PRQ47A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: H5PRQ47A </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.” §REF§ (Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Roman religion was an amalgam of different traditions from at least as far back as we can hope to go. Leaving aside its mythical prehistory, Roman religion was always already multicultural.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 3) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a>§REF§ “We can scarcely know anything at all about the religious experience or thoughts of any single individual of the period; even amongst the elite, our picture is oblique and inferential; about the religious perspective of the poor we can hardly even guess. All we know well are formal acts in the public arena, such as the taking or fulfilling of a vow by a private individual […] The absences in that record are not entirely random: the lack, for example, of private religious biographies is probably not so much a sad loss for the historian to lament, as an indication of a society in which this particular form of religious discourse had no (or only a very limited) place. §REF§ (Beard 1996, 79) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a>§REF§ “Several sites [within and outside Rome] have now produced substantial deposits of votive offerings dating back to at least the fourth century B.C., which consist primarily of small terracotta models of parts of the human body; this suggests that there were a number of sanctuaries soon after the beginning of the Republic to which individuals went when seeking cures for their diseases: at these sanctuaries they presumably dedicated terracottas of the afflicted part. This implies not only a cult not mentioned in any surviving ancient account, but also a type of religiosity which the accepted model of early Roman religion seems to exclude: for it implies that individuals turned to the gods directly in search of support with their everyday problems of health and disease.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 12-13) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The Romans claimed — in the persona of Cicero — to be 'the most pious of all peoples'. The most obvious correlate is the large number of cults - cults that had been imported from everywhere. […] The ritual of appropriating foreign gods {evocatio deorum) established links with political entities that had been defeated or destroyed.”§REF§ ( Rupke 2006, 193-194) Rupke, Jorg. 2006. ‘Roman Religion’. In The Cambridge Companion to The Roman Republic. Edited by Harriet I. Flower. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BR6D95VQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BR6D95VQ </b></a>§REF§“From an initial array of gods and spirits, Rome added to this collection to include both Greek gods as well as a number of foreign cults.” §REF§ (Wasson, 2013) Wasson, Donald. 2013. ‘Roman Religion’. World History Encyclopedia. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7VA8HX2E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7VA8HX2E </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“As Rome expanded by treaty and conquest during the Monarchy and early Republic, it incorporated new citizens from added territories by creating new tribes of voters. At the same time, the new citizens’ gods were incorporated into the divine community, whose public cults constituted the state religion.” §REF§ (Ward 2003, 51) Ward, Allen Mason. 2003. A History of the Roman People. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9ZMM8V48\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9ZMM8V48 </b></a>§REF§ “We can scarcely know anything at all about the religious experience or thoughts of any single individual of the period; even amongst the elite, our picture is oblique and inferential; about the religious perspective of the poor we can hardly even guess. All we know well are formal acts in the public arena, such as the taking or fulfilling of a vow by a private individual […] The absences in that record are not entirely random: the lack, for example, of private religious biographies is probably not so much a sad loss for the historian to lament, as an indication of a society in which this particular form of religious discourse had no (or only a very limited) place. §REF§ (Beard 1996, 79) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“[…] even at the end of the fifth century A. D. the Lupercalia was still being celebrated in the city — by pagans and Christians.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 315) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“At the same time a remarkable feature of Roman religion was its habit of continually introducing new (usually foreign) deities and cult practices, particularly from the Greek world. This was an inherent feature which can be traced back to the very earliest times. […] The result was the proliferation of a large number, and a bewildering variety, of cults, festivals and ceremonies, which continued to be observed in the classical period, even though most of them were (and perhaps always had been) obscure, and mysterious.” […] Traces of Indo-European myth and functional ideology are undoubtedly present in the stories of early Rome, and in particular in early Roman religion. […] Modern research has produced abundant evidence for direct Greek influence on early Roman religion.” §REF§ (Cornell 2012, 25, 78, 162) Cornell, Tim. 2012. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M8AKJQJZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M8AKJQJZ </b></a>§REF§“As Rome expanded by treaty and conquest during the Monarchy and early Republic, it incorporated new citizens from added territories by creating new tribes of voters. At the same time, the new citizens’ gods were incorporated into the divine community, whose public cults constituted the state religion.” §REF§ (Ward 2003, 51) Ward, Allen Mason. 2003. A History of the Roman People. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9ZMM8V48\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9ZMM8V48 </b></a>§REF§“Roman religion was an amalgam of different traditions from at least as far back as we can hope to go. Leaving aside its mythical prehistory, Roman religion was always already multicultural.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 3) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“in Catholic societies an entire multi-state apparatus, the early modern Inquisition, had been created to eradicate such spiritual ambiguity and syncretism of belief, as well as to prevent “backsliding” into Judaism and Islam.” §REF§ Salzmann, 402) Salzmann, Ariel. 2013. ‘Migrants in Chains: On the Enslavement of Muslims in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe’. In Religions. Vol 4. Pp. 392 – 411. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I89VA8PS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I89VA8PS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt's geographic isolation and the Egyptians' sense of cultural superiority ensured that most features of their religion were unaffected by foreign influence until the New Kingdom, when Egypt had more consistent contact with Western Asia.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt's geographic isolation and the Egyptians' sense of cultural superiority ensured that most features of their religion were unaffected by foreign influence until the New Kingdom, when Egypt had more consistent contact with Western Asia.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt’s geographic isolation and the Egyptians’ sense of cultural superiority ensured that most features of their religion were unaffected by foreign influence until the New Kingdom, when Egypt had more consistent contact with Western Asia.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt's geographic isolation and the Egyptians' sense of cultural superiority ensured that most features of their religion were unaffected by foreign influence until the New Kingdom, when Egypt had more consistent contact with Western Asia.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Within the country’s administrative elite, there was very quickly no distinction according to ethnic classification, because the inhabitants liked to switch between cultures and religions.”§REF§(Pfeiffer 2008, 388) Pfieffer, Stefan. 2008. ‘The God Serapis, His Cult and the Beginnings of the Ruler Cult in Ptolemaic Egypt’. In Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his world. Edited by Paul Mekechnie and Philipe Guillame. Boston: Mnemosyne. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CR5TFWWS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CR5TFWWS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Within the country’s administrative elite, there was very quickly no distinction according to ethnic classification, because the inhabitants liked to switch between cultures and religions.”§REF§(Pfeiffer 2008, 388) Pfieffer, Stefan. 2008. ‘The God Serapis, His Cult and the Beginnings of the Ruler Cult in Ptolemaic Egypt’. In Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his world. Edited by Paul Mekechnie and Philipe Guillame. Boston: Mnemosyne. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CR5TFWWS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CR5TFWWS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The Gaon, the head of the Jerusalem Yeshiva, was appointed as the “head of the Jews” in the empire and derived his authority directly from the imam-Caliph. This innovation imposed a new Jewish political order, and it demanded the recognition of the Jewish population. In its pursuit of legitimacy and loyalty, the new Jewish leadership promoted a series of religious innovations in the city of Jerusalem. The heads of the yeshiva, now recognized and backed by the Fatimids, re-sketched a sacred map, taking into consideration the city’s holy topography under Muslim rule. The rituals performed during the holy month of Tishrei were actually an amalgamation of religious rites with rites of power and authority. In this sense they resembled the public ceremonies conducted in Cairo by the Fatimid Caliphs, as depicted and analyzed by Paula Sanders, who claims that, “these ceremonies responded as much to the changing urban landscape of Cairo and Fustat as they did to dramatic political and religious changes.” §REF§ (Talmon-Heller and Frenkel 2019, 218) Talmon-Heller, Daniella, and Frenkel, Miriam. 2019. Religious Innovation under Fatimid Rule: Jewish and Muslim Rites in Eleventh-Century Jerusalem. Medieval Encounters.Vol.25. Pp. 203-226. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMFK29H5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SMFK29H5 </b></a>§REF§“From a long-term historical perspective, it has often been noticed that, despite the all but total disappearance from Egypt of any type of Shiism very soon after the decline of the Fatimid Empire, the more than two centuries of Ismāʿīlī domination were to have a profound and lasting impact on religious practices, in particular with regard to the veneration of the family members of the prophet Muḥammad (ahl al-bayt, “people of the house”).” §REF§ (den Heijer, Lev, and Swanson 2015, 328) den Heijer, Johannes, Lev, Yaacov, and Swanson, Mark. 2015. The Fatimid Empire and its Population. Medieval Encounters. Vol. 21. Pp. 323-344. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HDSM663W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HDSM663W </b></a>§REF§ “[…] new ceremonies corresponded not only to traditional Jewish practices but also to a prevalent well-established cosmological world model, shared by contemporary Jews, Christians and Muslims. The perception of Jerusalem as the center of the world, or as the axis mundi, the universal pillar, which connects heaven and earth and therefore is a point of intercession between men and God, was at this period an indispensable component of an imago mundi shared by people of all three creeds and denominations.” §REF§ (Talmon-Heller and Frenkel 2019, 222) Talmon-Heller, Daniella, and Frenkel, Miriam. 2019. Religious Innovation under Fatimid Rule: Jewish and Muslim Rites in Eleventh-Century Jerusalem. Medieval Encounters.Vol.25. Pp. 203-226. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMFK29H5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SMFK29H5 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\" “Qalawun, for whom there is, incidentally, evidence of lingering shamanistic belief, endowed a madrasa in his hospital complex; yet it was from Sufis that he sought comfort at the time of his son’s fatal illness. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 268) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\" “Qalawun, for whom there is, incidentally, evidence of lingering shamanistic belief, endowed a madrasa in his hospital complex; yet it was from Sufis that he sought comfort at the time of his son’s fatal illness. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 268) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§“Alongside the official celebration of Islam, the quest for the intercession of the saints was widespread. In those times of terrifying epidemics which struck military circles even harder then the civilian populations, recourse to the saints was as common among the mamluks as in the common people. The blessing of the saints ( baraka ) was sought in all circles. It is very significant that Qaytbay should have been duped by a false saint when his courage failed in the face of the Ottomans in 1488.” §REF§ (Garcin 1998, 307) Garcin, Jean-Claude. 1998. ‘The regime of the Circassian Mamluks’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2FPQCEQ4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2FPQCEQ4 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\" “Qalawun, for whom there is, incidentally, evidence of lingering shamanistic belief, endowed a madrasa in his hospital complex; yet it was from Sufis that he sought comfort at the time of his son’s fatal illness. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 268) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt’s geographic isolation and the Egyptians’ sense of cultural superiority ensured that most features of their religion were unaffected by foreign influence until the New Kingdom, when Egypt had more consistent contact with Western Asia.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Egypt's geographic isolation and the Egyptians' sense of cultural superiority ensured that most features of their religion were unaffected by foreign influence until the New Kingdom, when Egypt had more consistent contact with Western Asia. From that time, Levantine gods (Astarte, Anat, Baal, Reshep, and Qudshu) were incorporated into the pantheon. The beliefin, and reverence for, foreign deities is suggested by King Amunhotep Ill's request to Mitanni (now northern Syria) King Tushratta for a statue of Ishtar of Nineveh to alleviate an illness.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 14) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote seems to imply that people practiced both traditional rituals and Christian ones. ’The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the \"spirits of the dead\" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult. The Orokaiva have been swept recently by a series of new cults, indicative of their religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. Religious training is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church, although mission influence has not totally eradicated traditional beliefs, producing an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.’ §REF§ Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V2AK2FR7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V2AK2FR7 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Hinduism has touched the Iban, as the title for deity (petera) and the names of some of the spirits imply. But neither Hinduism nor Islam has radically influenced Iban religion, which remains cult based on a belief in the spirits on men, nature, and super-nature.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 4) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "‘Today we know that the encounter has resulted in the Christianization of the majority of Garos: the missionaries somehow succeeded in converting the Garos in large numbers. At the time of their arrival, however, their success was evidently not ensured. The very presence of missionaries could not explain their successes. These were not the result of a simple, unilineal, and cumulative process, but the outcome of fragmented Garo responses to fragmented missionary propositions and offers, varying in time and place. In other words, the large-scale conversion of Garos was the result of a complex, fragmented process in which missionaries and their objectives – the Garos and their goals, needs, and considerations – and the larger context in which this encounter occurred all played a role. \"Thus, we need to distinguish different variables: missionaries (their message, methods, behaviour, personality), the Garos (their reasons for conversion), and the context (socio-economic, cultural, and political). §REF§ (Bal 2007:136) Bal, Ellen. 2007. They Ask If We Eat Frogs: Garo Ethnicity in Bangladesh. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ARMDH9MD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ARMDH9MD </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "Within the Mesoamerican context, syncretism before the advent of Christianity did not involve the melding of distinct religious traditions, but rather of local variants of the same shared set of beliefs and practices. At the same time, it is worth noting that several issues related to religious beliefs and practices that are very difficult to reconstruct based on the available sources.§REF§summary of Jesper Nielsen’s pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni via Zoom conversation, May 10 2024. Summary approved by Jesper Nielsen via email on May 14, 2024.§REF§", "description": "“Teotihuacan gained converts all over Mesoamerica at unprecedented rates. At some sites, syncretic practices may be observed where Teotihuacan or Teotihuacan-related elements were combined with local religious aspects. Syncretism thus also gained ground, and it was another major tool of expansion. […] Ritual practices at Teotihuacan were highly diverse, reflecting the multicultural populations that lived in different barrios. However, at the elite level, there were official common practices, as seen in elaborate artifacts and material culture found abroad.” §REF§ (Filini 2015, 100) Filini, Agapi. 2015. Teotihuacan: Ritual Economy, Exchange, and Urbanization Processes in Classic Period Mesoamerica. Economic Anthropology. Vol. 2. Pp. 97–119. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D6MQXIMH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D6MQXIMH </b></a> §REF§ “Foreigners were interred according to their specific cultural traditions although their burials often adopted some Jeotihuacan practices. An example of this is found in the Oaxaca Barrio, Tlailotlacan, where burials are Zapotec in style, with regard to location, container, position, and funerary rites (notably the placement of the dead in an extended position, the prevalence of multiple burials, and the use of formal tombs), but include both Zapotec and Teotihuacan grave goods (see chapter 6).” §REF§ (Manzanilla 2002, 49) Manzanilla, Linda. ‘Living with the Ancestors and Offering to the Gods Domestic Ritual at Teotihuacan’. In Domestic Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica. Edited by Patricia Plunket. Los Angeles: The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6C2CPHNE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6C2CPHNE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Mongols punishment of certain instances of <i>refusing</i> to participate in syncretism of this kind suggests that it was present. \"‘Positive intolerance’ refers to the active persecution of the religious other. ‘Negative intolerance’, in contrast, signifies the refusal to ‘perform “intolerable” actions demanded by others’.45 Negative intolerance included, in the Mongol case, the refusal to venerate Chinggis Khan’s image by visitors and attendants at the court, the refusal to abide by Mongol taboos such as the prohibition on washing in running water, and food-related practices such as the halal slaughter of animals, or even the exclusionary requirement of baptism (or other confessional rites) as a precondition to participate in, and benefit from, access to spiritual power and divine blessing. As indicated by diverse reports from the period, the Mongol overlords might respond harshly and violently punish these expressions of ‘negative intolerance’.\"§REF§(Brack 2021, 26) Brack, J. 2021. Disenchanting Heaven: Interfaith Debate, Sacral Kingship, and Conversion to Islam in the Mongol Empire, 1260-1335. Past & Present 250(1): 11-53. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/BRACK/titleCreatorYear/items/MADZH84Q/item-list §REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Mongols punishment of certain instances of <i>refusing</i> to participate in syncretism of this kind suggests that it was present. \"‘Positive intolerance’ refers to the active persecution of the religious other. ‘Negative intolerance’, in contrast, signifies the refusal to ‘perform “intolerable” actions demanded by others’.45 Negative intolerance included, in the Mongol case, the refusal to venerate Chinggis Khan’s image by visitors and attendants at the court, the refusal to abide by Mongol taboos such as the prohibition on washing in running water, and food-related practices such as the halal slaughter of animals, or even the exclusionary requirement of baptism (or other confessional rites) as a precondition to participate in, and benefit from, access to spiritual power and divine blessing. As indicated by diverse reports from the period, the Mongol overlords might respond harshly and violently punish these expressions of ‘negative intolerance’.\"§REF§(Brack 2021, 26) Brack, J. 2021. Disenchanting Heaven: Interfaith Debate, Sacral Kingship, and Conversion to Islam in the Mongol Empire, 1260-1335. Past & Present 250(1): 11-53. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/BRACK/titleCreatorYear/items/MADZH84Q/item-list §REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Mongols punishment of certain instances of <i>refusing</i> to participate in syncretism of this kind suggests that it was present. \"‘Positive intolerance’ refers to the active persecution of the religious other. ‘Negative intolerance’, in contrast, signifies the refusal to ‘perform “intolerable” actions demanded by others’.45 Negative intolerance included, in the Mongol case, the refusal to venerate Chinggis Khan’s image by visitors and attendants at the court, the refusal to abide by Mongol taboos such as the prohibition on washing in running water, and food-related practices such as the halal slaughter of animals, or even the exclusionary requirement of baptism (or other confessional rites) as a precondition to participate in, and benefit from, access to spiritual power and divine blessing. As indicated by diverse reports from the period, the Mongol overlords might respond harshly and violently punish these expressions of ‘negative intolerance’.\"§REF§(Brack 2021, 26) Brack, J. 2021. Disenchanting Heaven: Interfaith Debate, Sacral Kingship, and Conversion to Islam in the Mongol Empire, 1260-1335. Past & Present 250(1): 11-53. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/BRACK/titleCreatorYear/items/MADZH84Q/item-list §REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/ATSZ6QBU§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 639, "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "\"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case. Although there has been and continues to be disagreement about the precise nature of Sufi influence in Africa, the emphasis placed by Sufism historically on personal piety and exemplary behaviour, in the words of Knut Vikor, has been rather more important than ‘its external functions as a focus for political combat and jihad’. In other words, African Muslims have been historically less responsive to the call to arms than others of the Faith. Second, and more directly pertinent to north-east Africa, it has been suggested that Somali ‘xenophobia’ has likewise rendered Islam in that area comparatively immune to external influence. This goes some way to explaining what Iqbal Jhazbhay terms ‘the relative inter-faith détente that has existed between Christian and Islamic spheres of influence in the Horn of Africa’. Somali Islam ‘appears to be solidly located within a tradition of regional, geo-cultural, peaceful co-existence between Christianity, Islam and indigenous animistic tendencies’.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/CZB48WKQ/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 646, "name": "so_ifat_sultanate", "long_name": "Ifat Sultanate", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1375 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "\"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case. Although there has been and continues to be disagreement about the precise nature of Sufi influence in Africa, the emphasis placed by Sufism historically on personal piety and exemplary behaviour, in the words of Knut Vikor, has been rather more important than ‘its external functions as a focus for political combat and jihad’. In other words, African Muslims have been historically less responsive to the call to arms than others of the Faith. Second, and more directly pertinent to north-east Africa, it has been suggested that Somali ‘xenophobia’ has likewise rendered Islam in that area comparatively immune to external influence. This goes some way to explaining what Iqbal Jhazbhay terms ‘the relative inter-faith détente that has existed between Christian and Islamic spheres of influence in the Horn of Africa’. Somali Islam ‘appears to be solidly located within a tradition of regional, geo-cultural, peaceful co-existence between Christianity, Islam and indigenous animistic tendencies’.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/CZB48WKQ/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 663, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_1", "long_name": "Oyo", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1535 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 661, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_2", "long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́", "start_year": 1601, "end_year": 1835 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "" } ] }