Sync Rel Pra Ind Beli List
A viewset for viewing and editing Syncretism of Religious Practices at the Level of Individual Believers.
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{ "count": 272, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/syncretism-of-religious-practices-at-the-level-of-individual-believers/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§ “In religion Amoghavarsha had great leaning towards Jainism. […] Though there can be thus no doubt that Amoghavarsha was immensely impressed by the gospel of Mahavira. he had not altogether ceased to believe in the tenets and beliefs of Hinduism. […] It would seem that he [Amoghavarsha I ] was often putting his YuvarBja or the ministry in charge of the administration. in order to pass some days in retirement and contemplation in the company of his Jain gurus. This again shows the pious monarch trying to put into practice the teachings both of Hinduism and Jainism; which require a pious person to retire from life at the advent of old age in order to realise the highest ideals of human life.” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 88-89), Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their Times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§ “Amoghavarsha J was undoubtedly a follower of Jainism. and yet he was such an ardent believer in the Hindu goddess Mahalakshmi. that he actually cut off one of his fingers and offered it to her. being led to believe that an epidemic. from which his kingdom was suffering. Would vanish away by that sacrifice.” §REF§ (Altekar 1934, 273), Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1934. The Rashtrakutas and their Times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ3UZZT6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ3UZZT6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Regarding the following variable, expert Wallace Teska remarked: \"Not only present, but common, especially after the establishment of the caliphate of Hamdullahi (Massina) in 1818.\"\r\n\r\n \"What is particularly fascinating is that the bard tells us that the Bamana King, Monzon Jara (who ruled from 1787-1808) sought the shielding and empowering prayers of a particularly learned Muslim holy man, Mamadu Bisiri, while preparing for his war against the ruler of Kore. [...] While Monzon Jara and his successors at Segou never failed to offer sacrifices to the boliw, the traditional and mystical sources of their power, or attend to the ancestral shrines that had long sustained this warrior state, they came to regard Islam as an increasingly precious resource, a set of beliefs and practices capable of not only protecting themselves but of assuring the continued vitality of all of Segou and its citizenry.\" §REF§Bravmann, R.A. 2008. Islamic ritual and practice in Bamana Ségou. In J.P. Colleyn (ed.) \"Bamana: the art of existence in Mali\" pp. 35-43. New York: Museum of African Art.§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "When traveller Ibn Battuta visited this polity late in the fourteenth century, he noted that \"the emperor also remained faithful to certain pagan customs, and Ibn Battuuta was shocked by many unorthodox practices. Apart from the presence of Arabs and the slight Muslim veneer, what happened at the court of the mansa differed very little from what might have been seen at the courts of non-Muslim kings, for example those of Mossi\" §REF§D.T. Niane. Mali and the second Mandingo expansion, in D.T. Niane (ed), \"The General History of Africa, vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century\" (1984), pp. 117-171§REF§ “The early rulers of Goa and Ghana understood that their links with Muslim trade networks and borrowings from Islamic culture increased their power and wealth, even if they did not utter the Islamic profession of faith and pray in the Muslim way. They may have described themselves as Muslim and were generally acknowledged as such, but they had to retain the allegiance of subjects who remained non-Muslim or combined Islam with other heritages. It was a model that, with variations, was replicated throughout centuries of West African history and if applied even to sovereigns renowned for their Islamic piety, such as Mansa Musa of Mali and Askia (or Askiya) Muhammad I of Songhay.” §REF§ (De Moraes Farias 2020: 133) De Moraes Farias, Paulo F. 2020. ‘Islam in the West African Sahel’. In Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara. Edited by A. La Gamma. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPASJ4RZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPASJ4RZ </b></a> §REF§ Within the Mande cultural context, however, the hajj could be interpreted as a double move, a multiple and intertwining cultural signifier. In undertaking the required dali-ma-sigi or ‘quest’ to enter spiritual spaces to appropriate its power, the Simbon spent considerable time in certain natural formations and special sites- but what could be a greater source of power and blessing than the holy places of the Hijaz? In making hajj, therefore, Mande rulers were not only pursuing Islam, but also potentially gesturing toward indigenous, deeply embedded beliefs. Imbued with both Islamic and non-Islamic valence, the Pilgrimage is a spiritual feat like no other, representing a consummate political strategy of legitimization.” §REF§ (Gomez 2008: 97) Gomez, Michael. 2008. African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RIE9U2C7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RIE9U2C7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"This does not mean that the kings were necessarily very devout or deep Muslims. They also had to reckon with the local customs and traditional beliefs of the majority of their non-Muslim subjects who looked upon the rulers as incarnations of or intermediaries of supranatural powers. None of the rulers had the political power to enforce Islam or Islamic law without compromising the loyalty of the non-Muslims. This helps to explain the numerous pagan rites and ceremonies at the courts of Muslim kings like the mansas of Mali and of the askiyas of Songhay, men who had performed the pilgrimage and were commonly considered to be devout Muslims.\" §REF§I. Hrbek and M. El Fasi, Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa, in in M. El Fasi and I. Hrbek (eds.) General History of Africa, vol. 3: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century (1988), pp. 56-91§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“After French missionaries moved into the Illinois country, the Illinois continued to view dreams as necessary parts of their spiritual lives. However, they now began to incorporate Christian themes and rites to understand these dreams. An Illinois Christian whom Gabriel Marest called Henri is a case in point. Henri and his family all contracted a fatal disease -most likely smallpox--in the early 1700s. His wife and several of his children died. \"When he thought he had only a few moments longer to live,\" Gravier wrote of Henri, \"he imagined that he saw the Missionaries, who restored him to life, opened to him the gate of Heaven, and urged him to enter there. From that moment he began to grow better.\" Once he was strong enough to travel, Henri and his surviving family moved to the Kaskaskia mission of Immaculate Conception, which in 1700 had moved from the northern Illinois River down to the Mississippi at the mouth of the Kaskaskia River. Though the disease left him permanently blind, he began Christian instruction with Father Gravier and went on to teach his surviving children the lessons of the Gospel. All were soon baptized. Gravier's word choice and his interpretation of Henri's travails all point toward his bias as a European Christian-that is, Gravier believed that God sent a message to Henri in his dream, telling him to renounce his paganism and convert to Christianity. However, Henri's dream does fall within Illinois Christian understanding, for his response to the power of the dream, as an interaction with \"mythically defined sources of personal empowerment,\" mirrors Illinois precontact behavior regarding dreams. Henri believed that his recovery after the dream proved the existence and power of the Christian God, and he shifted his relations accordingly. But he did so through his Illinois understanding of the importance of dreams.” §REF§ (Bilodeau, 359) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§“To the Illinois such objects of spiritual importance as manitous rested in their environment. Manitous could reside in any object in that environment- an animal, a bird, a river, or a rock - and the Illinois would then use these spiritual, \"worldly\" objects to explain the world around them. And they interpreted Christianity in the same way. The Illinois made no distinction between what could or could not be spiritual within their environment, nor did they separate a spiritual realm from a physical one. The Illinois viewed every \"worldly\" object in their environment as a potential spirit, and this view had interesting effects on how the Illinois practiced Christianity. §REF§ (Bilodeau, 354) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§“The Illinois based their relationships with both humans and manitous in part on material exchanges. The material they exchanged could range from tobacco and furs, like any ordinary economic trade, to a gift of one's self, like hospitality. Either type of material always demanded some type of recompense. A manitou proved its worth, for example, by generously reimbursing its worshippers after they sacrificed. But when the Illinois looked to Christianity with this \"material\" mentality, they at times practiced the religion in ways that many European Christians would find inappropriate, even alarming. The Illinois made traditional sacrifices to the Christian God, or expected tangible, material benefits for their worship. Arguments over the material elements of the rite of baptism between the Illinois and French missionaries occasionally erupted into violence.” §REF§ (Bilodeau, 354) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§“The French hoped that the Illinois would convert to Christianity wholesale, but realized that they would have to permit the Illinois a large amount of cultural agency and autonomy in order for that to happen. That sentiment only reinforced what the Illinois were predisposed to do: to rationalize Christianity within the structures of their mental world, one based on their \"worldly\" physical surroundings. It thus comes as no surprise when Allouez wrote of the Illinois that \"[t]hey honor our Lord among themselves in their own way.\"” §REF§ (Bilodeau, 363) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§“As Allouez noted with these same Miami in 1672, when they viewed the chapel as a manitou and \"address [ed] their speeches to this house of God, and [spoke] to it as to an animate being,\" the Illinois seemed to manifest a \"worldly\" view with the cross as well, looking past the Christian symbolism of the cross and seeing it instead as an \"other-than-human person.\" The Illinois here used both the worldly and material aspects of their mentality by believing the cross was a manitou and by sacrificing material in the hope of gaining material from God.” §REF§ (Bilodeau, 365) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests a significant degree of inter-ethnic mixing, but it remains unclear to what extent this was accompanied by any kind of religious syncretism. \"Perhaps, like the situation south of the Ohio-Mississippi confluence, the diversity of ceramic styles in the American Bottom may also have resulted, in part, from the migrations of small groups into the American Bottom, co-residing with the local villagers who lived there during the tenth and early eleventh centuries. […] Such exotic potters seem to have continued using the styles of their natal communities, or at least certain attributes of those styles, sometimes producing a bewildering diversity of hybridized construction techniques and paste recipes. “At the same time as exotic potters may have immigrated into the American Bottom, there is evidence of intensive between-village intercourse in that same stretch of floodplain. […] In other words, that the pots of one’s neighbours ended up in the refuse of one’s own village probably indicates periodic inter-village feasting, with hosts and guests alternating between villages from event to event (Pauketat 2000a).\"§REF§(Pauketat 2004: 59-60) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYTS9YS6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JYTS9YS6 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests a significant degree of inter-ethnic mixing, but it remains unclear to what extent this was accompanied by any kind of religious syncretism. \"Perhaps, like the situation south of the Ohio-Mississippi confluence, the diversity of ceramic styles in the American Bottom may also have resulted, in part, from the migrations of small groups into the American Bottom, co-residing with the local villagers who lived there during the tenth and early eleventh centuries. […] Such exotic potters seem to have continued using the styles of their natal communities, or at least certain attributes of those styles, sometimes producing a bewildering diversity of hybridized construction techniques and paste recipes. “At the same time as exotic potters may have immigrated into the American Bottom, there is evidence of intensive between-village intercourse in that same stretch of floodplain. […] In other words, that the pots of one’s neighbours ended up in the refuse of one’s own village probably indicates periodic inter-village feasting, with hosts and guests alternating between villages from event to event (Pauketat 2000a).\"§REF§(Pauketat 2004: 59-60) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYTS9YS6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JYTS9YS6 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"As little is known of sociopolitical organization of Patrick Phase communities, even less is known of their religion and expressive culture.\"§REF§(Christiansen 2001: 260) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F8GJ2HZF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F8GJ2HZF </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 32, "name": "us_cahokia_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests that Cahokian culture emerged from a process of cultural hybridity--it sees reasonable to infer that this included religious beliefs and practices as well. \"I would argue that a new political order at Cahokia did not cause the new Mississippian technologies and material culture. This is because change was located within the encounters of difference. It was within the thirdspaces of those encounters that new meanings and new forms were conceived and combined in the re-created spaces of Cahokia. [...] It resulted in what we now call Mississippian.\"§REF§(Alt 2006, 302) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VKAWPV5E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VKAWPV5E </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 418, "name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "long_name": "Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty", "start_year": 730, "end_year": 1030 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 414, "name": "in_ganga_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Middle Ganga", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Nevertheless, given the number of converts and Akbar’s strategy of “lasting reconciliation,” it should come as no surprise to find that many Muslims celebrated the major Indic festivals.\" §REF§(Blake 2013: 84-87) Blake, Stephen P. 2013. Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires. United States, Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9AM5CUE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9AM5CUE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 405, "name": "in_gahadavala_dyn", "long_name": "Gahadavala Dynasty", "start_year": 1085, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Gahadavala kings, like the Pratiharas whose religion has already been stated, did not confine their devotions to one member only of the great Hindu pantheon. [...] But so marked was the royal eclecticism that according to a Bodhgaya inscription in later life [King] Jayacandra, out of reverence for a Buddhist monk named Srimitra, himself became his disciple 'with a pleasing heart and an indescribable hankering.'\"§REF§(Tripathi 1989, 351-2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EAMVURAK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EAMVURAK </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 415, "name": "in_ganga_ca", "long_name": "Chalcolithic Middle Ganga", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -601 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"We do not have any indication about the religious beliefs of the Chalcolithic inhabitants of the Middle Ganga Plain.\"§REF§(Singh 2004: 149) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D6NWCU5A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D6NWCU5A </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 390, "name": "in_magadha_k", "long_name": "Magadha", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 605 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 397, "name": "in_chola_emp", "long_name": "Chola Empire", "start_year": 849, "end_year": 1280 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 630, "name": "sl_polonnaruva", "long_name": "Polonnaruwa", "start_year": 1070, "end_year": 1255 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“As stated above, the transfer of the capital to Polonnaruva has been portrayed as connected with a religious shift towards a more pluralistic and eclectic patronage at state-level, incorporating Buddhist, Brahmanical and Saivite practices.\"§REF§ Coningham et al. 2017, 37) Coningham et al. 2017. ‘Archaeology and cosmopolitanism in early historic and medieval Sri Lanka.’ Sri Lanka at the Crossroads of History. Edited by Zoltán Biedermann and Alan Strathern. London: UCL Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DCQMW8E3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DCQMW8E3 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 634, "name": "sl_jaffa_k", "long_name": "Jaffna", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Along with the veneration of Mahayanist deities, the worship of Vedic and post-Vedic Hindu deities was firmly established as part of the religious practice of Sri Lanka Buddhism.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981: 193) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 628, "name": "sl_dambadeniya", "long_name": "Dambadaneiya", "start_year": 1232, "end_year": 1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Along with the veneration of Mahayanist deities, the worship of Vedic and post-Vedic Hindu deities was firmly established as part of the religious practice of Sri Lanka Buddhism.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981: 193) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 633, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_1", "long_name": "Anurādhapura I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 70 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Although the spread of Buddhism in the island was at the expense of Hinduism, the latter never became totally submerged, but survived and had an influence on Buddhism which became more marked with the passage of time. Vedic deities, pre-Buddhistic in origin in Sri Lanka, held their sway among the people, and kings who patronised the official religion, Buddhism, supported Hindu temples and observed Brāhmanic practices as well. Hinduism was sustained also by small groups of Brāhmans living among the people and at the court. It was in later centuries of the Anurādhapura kingdom that the Hindu influence on Buddhism became more pronounced as a necessary result of political and religious change in South India.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 9, 50). De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§ “Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 627, "name": "in_pandya_emp_3", "long_name": "Pandya Empire", "start_year": 1216, "end_year": 1323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 635, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_2", "long_name": "Anurādhapura II", "start_year": 70, "end_year": 428 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Although the spread of Buddhism in the island was at the expense of Hinduism, the latter never became totally submerged, but survived and had an influence on Buddhism which became more marked with the passage of time. Vedic deities, pre-Buddhistic in origin in Sri Lanka, held their sway among the people, and kings who patronised the official religion, Buddhism, supported Hindu temples and observed Brāhmanic practices as well. Hinduism was sustained also by small groups of Brāhmans living among the people and at the court. It was in later centuries of the Anurādhapura kingdom that the Hindu influence on Buddhism became more pronounced as a necessary result of political and religious change in South India.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 9, 50). De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§ “Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 631, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_3", "long_name": "Anurādhapura III", "start_year": 428, "end_year": 614 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Although the spread of Buddhism in the island was at the expense of Hinduism, the latter never became totally submerged, but survived and had an influence on Buddhism which became more marked with the passage of time. Vedic deities, pre-Buddhistic in origin in Sri Lanka, held their sway among the people, and kings who patronised the official religion, Buddhism, supported Hindu temples and observed Brāhmanic practices as well. Hinduism was sustained also by small groups of Brāhmans living among the people and at the court. It was in later centuries of the Anurādhapura kingdom that the Hindu influence on Buddhism became more pronounced as a necessary result of political and religious change in South India.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 9, 50). De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§ “Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 629, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_4", "long_name": "Anurādhapura IV", "start_year": 614, "end_year": 1017 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Although the spread of Buddhism in the island was at the expense of Hinduism, the latter never became totally submerged, but survived and had an influence on Buddhism which became more marked with the passage of time. Vedic deities, pre-Buddhistic in origin in Sri Lanka, held their sway among the people, and kings who patronised the official religion, Buddhism, supported Hindu temples and observed Brāhmanic practices as well. Hinduism was sustained also by small groups of Brāhmans living among the people and at the court. It was in later centuries of the Anurādhapura kingdom that the Hindu influence on Buddhism became more pronounced as a necessary result of political and religious change in South India.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 9, 50). De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§ “Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 670, "name": "ni_bornu_emp", "long_name": "Kanem-Borno", "start_year": 1380, "end_year": 1893 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"As a Muslim empire, Kanem-Bornu was not radically different from other “Islamicate” polities in sub-Saharan Africa. Indeed, whilst it was dominated by Islam, there were many pre-Islamic features that shaped political and cultural life.” §REF§Hiribarren, V. (2016). Kanem-Bornu Empire. In N. Dalziel & J. M. MacKenzie (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Empire (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 3. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KNHK5ANQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KNHK5ANQ </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 636, "name": "et_jimma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma", "start_year": 1790, "end_year": 1932 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“At the early stage of Islamic expansion to the Gibe states, conversion was nominal. The Muslim Oromo people continued practicing the OIR [Oromo indigenous religion] rituals together with their new religion […] Many Oromo Muslims continued attending OIR rituals such as the Butta ceremony and the Muudaa pilgrimage, which allowed them to continue having contact with other non-Muslim Oromo people.” §REF§ (Benti 2018, 129) Benti, Ujulu Tesso. 2018. Oromo Indigenous Religion and Oromo Christianity. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GR89DNEK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GR89DNEK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 607, "name": "si_early_modern_interior", "long_name": "Early Modern Sierra Leone", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"In many communities in Sierra Leone, Muslim clerics were and are still key figures in conducting traditional rituals and sacrifices (Khanu 2001:46).\"§REF§(Conteh 2009: 111) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WNZ725MA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WNZ725MA </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 710, "name": "tz_tana", "long_name": "Classic Tana", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1498 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Other indigenous spiritual practices continued alongside and interwoven with Islam, as we see up to the present, although from the thirteenth century onward to be Swahili was to be a practising Muslim.\"§REF§(LaViolette and Wynne-Jones 2017: 9) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NQC4P63S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NQC4P63S </b></a>.§REF§ \"Adapted to African beliefs, Islam was by then present in settlements of all sizes, in its various currents. Data show the diversity and fluidity of religious affiliations, which coincided with political strategies. Sunnis, Shi’ites and Khârijites-Ibadis were present (Wilkinson 1981: 272–305; Horton and Middleton 2000: 67; Horton 2001: 463).\"§REF§(Beaujard 2017: 371) Seshat: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XFZRJ8DB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XFZRJ8DB </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 220, "name": "td_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem Empire", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1380 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No information found in the literature consulted, which focuses almost exclusively on the period following the advent of Islam." }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 679, "name": "se_jolof_emp", "long_name": "Jolof Empire", "start_year": 1360, "end_year": 1549 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Although exposed to Islamic influences through Muslim clerics, traders and court advisers, the Djolof Empire, unlike Tekrur resisted Islamization and most leaders and people remained firmly attached to their traditional religious practices. §REF§ (Gellar, 2020) Gellar, Sheldon. 2020. Senegal: An African Nation Between Islam and the West. Second Edition. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZCQVA3UX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZCQVA3UX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 608, "name": "gm_kaabu_emp", "long_name": "Kaabu", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": "\"Yes, there were sections of the Muslim populations who followed syncretic belief practices, blending Islamic and Soninke religious rituals. This is also true of present times as many Muslims follow both Islam and traditional belief or spiritual practices in The Gambia.\" (Mariama Khan, pers. comm. to Rachel Ainsworth, September 2023)", "description": "“Niane concurs with the seventeenth century French traveller Jojolet de la Courbe, who called Kaabu a pagan kingdom [around the 13th century]. However, by the seventeenth century it was very tolerant of Islamic dyula traders – this tolerance may itself have been because the dyula themselves leavened their Islam with non-Islamic rituals.” §REF§ (Green 2011, 42) Green, T. 2011. The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DV3R5U4Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DV3R5U4Q </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 671, "name": "ni_dahomey_k", "long_name": "Foys", "start_year": 1715, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Despite frequent cultural borrowings, the adoption of foreign deities should not be regarded as automatic, particularly when deities threatened local political authority. For example, Dahomey’s monarchy initially perceived the Kutito ancestor society as a threat to their own royal divinities (Herskovits [1938] 1967, 1:245; Noret 2010). Likewise, Sakpata the god of the earth and small- pox spread into Dahomey from the north, but Dahomey’s rulers were at first wary about this foreign god and the competition from its increasingly powerful priests (Sweet 2011, 20). The rulers reluctantly accepted the deity because of its popularity and in an effort to co-opt its power and to control smallpox (Falen 2016; Herskovits [1938] 1967; Sweet 2011, 20; Verger 1954). Therefore, despite some royal sponsorship of deities, as in the case of Mawu and Lisá, and in the example of inviting the spirits of foreign war captives, deities spread through the grassroots efforts of ordinary people to seek control of their lives and solutions to their problems. Vodún, like other African religions, did not necessarily exhibit a top-down orthodoxy given by priests but rather has always been a more democratic religion that allows individuals to interpret deities and supernatural events (see Thornton 1998). This suggests that, rather than a purely hegemonic religious order, Vodún contained an element of individual agency in the choice of deities to worship. Agency is indicated by the testimony provided early on to Bosman (1705, 367–368) by a man in Ouidah who explained that divinities were constantly being invented and discarded by individuals, depending on their effectiveness.” §REF§ (Falen 2022: 47) Falen, Douglas J. “UNIVERSALISM AND SYNCRETISM IN BENINESE VODÚN.” In Eric J. Montgomery, Timothy Landry and Christian Vannier (eds.) Spirit Service: Vodún and Vodou in the African Atlantic World,. Indiana University Press, 2022, pp. 40–69. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XT5IEBHJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XT5IEBHJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 693, "name": "tz_milansi_k", "long_name": "Fipa", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No information found in the literature consulted." }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 642, "name": "so_geledi_sultanate", "long_name": "Sultanate of Geledi", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1911 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case. Although there has been and continues to be disagreement about the precise nature of Sufi influence in Africa, the emphasis placed by Sufism historically on personal piety and exemplary behaviour, in the words of Knut Vikor, has been rather more important than ‘its external functions as a focus for political combat and jihad’. In other words, African Muslims have been historically less responsive to the call to arms than others of the Faith. Second, and more directly pertinent to north-east Africa, it has been suggested that Somali ‘xenophobia’ has likewise rendered Islam in that area comparatively immune to external influence. This goes some way to explaining what Iqbal Jhazbhay terms ‘the relative inter-faith détente that has existed between Christian and Islamic spheres of influence in the Horn of Africa’. Somali Islam ‘appears to be solidly located within a tradition of regional, geo-cultural, peaceful co-existence between Christianity, Islam and indigenous animistic tendencies’.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZB48WKQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZB48WKQ </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 669, "name": "ni_hausa_k", "long_name": "Hausa bakwai", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1808 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“In general, Islamization during this period was chiefly confined to the ruling élite and to trader groups, and it was only in cities and larger centres that Islam had much impact. Even so, most of the so-called Muslims were only half-hearted in their allegiance to Islam and still believed in other gods, whom they invoked in their shrines at sacred rocks and trees.” §REF§(Adamou 1984: 292) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/668MFIGU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 668MFIGU </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 617, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Suspected unknown due to the antiquity of this quasi-polity, the nature of the data, and the fact that this aspect of the quasi-polity's culture is not mentioned in a recent and comprehensive series of articles on prehistoric West Burkina Faso by Stephen Dueppen." }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 683, "name": "ug_buganda_k_2", "long_name": "Buganda II", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"[A] singular Bugandan religion was common to all Baganda, with a variety of deities called lubaale to whom temples and priests were devoted. While lubaale were considered former clan members, they could be and were worshipped by all Baganda, since “it was the question of locality, not of kinship, that decided to which of the prophets an inquirer should go.” Indeed, according to Mair this is one of several “peculiarities” that “distinguish it from the religious ceremonies of Bantu Africa” along with the lack of any regular obligatory ceremonies.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a>§REF§ Note that Islam and Christianity were introduced towards the end of the period in consideration. \"[I]t is clear that the coming of the Arabs and Europeans and the establishment of British colonial rule in the late 19th century did much to destroy a good deal of whatever national solidarity existed in Bugandan society. Foremost was the introduction of Islam in the 1860s and Christianity in the 1870s, which left Buganda – and Uganda – divided among Catholics (who now comprise some 42% of the current population of Uganda), Anglicans (39%) and Muslims (5-11%). No longer did a single religion unite Buganda, and these divisions would come to play a very large role in colonial and post-colonial politics in Buganda.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "However, it was punished by Church authorities. \"Most of the individuals arrested by the Goa Inquisition were Indian Christians. They were convicted and punished for a range of offences including heresy and apostasy. But the majority were found guilty of involvement in various syncretic practices considered to be proof of ‘Hinduizing’. Suspicions could be aroused by wearing Hindu dress, singing nuptial songs in Konkani, playing certain musical instruments, exchanging gifts of flowers, betel and areca in association with weddings, working at a temple or just celebrating diwali. However, 705 of the persons arrested, comprising almost 30 per cent of the total, were not Christian converts but Hindus. As such they could not of course be accused of heresy or apostasy. Nevertheless, they attracted Inquisition attention usually for breaching the strict prohibition on participating in non-Catholic rites in Portuguese territory.\" §REF§(Disney 2009b: 319) Disney, A. R. 2009a. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire from Beginnings to 1807. Volume 1, Portugal. Cambridge University Press: 143. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TKKDT5CZ </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 612, "name": "ni_nok_1", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Apparent uniformity of belief, but data is scarce. \"As demonstrated by the uniformity of their material culture and their presumed belief system, most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, external contacts within their culture must have existed. However, [...] It has to be considered that the preservation of features in Nok sites is generally poor and that the amount of data is not too large and regionally restricted to a rather small key study area. [...] Bound on what is indisputable, we may safely assert that the standalone peculiarity of the Nok Culture concerns its terracotta sculptures. Excavations have revealed contextual data emphasising their ritual significance - using the term \"ritual\" in a spiritual* context - and their role as materialised expression of a religion. Should it not be possible that the remarkable transregional uniformity of the complex, particularly mirrored by the omnipresence of the sculptures, was caused by the power of rituals and a complex system of beliefs? To accentuate this perspective, the Nok Culture deserves further investigation before the remaining evidence is irreversibly lost by looting which still takes place at many sites in Nigeria every day.\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 251-3) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ES4TRU7R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ES4TRU7R </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 662, "name": "ni_whydah_k", "long_name": "Whydah", "start_year": 1671, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Bosman’s notation of their new batch of gods provides a line of evidence suggesting both that the accumulative principle in Huedan Vodun was practiced early on, and that Huedans amassed new deities from the multi-ethnic and international communities found around at Ouidah and the palace at Savi. Yet, another example of a regional appropriation is Yoruba Ifa divination practiced in Hueda by the early to mid-18th century and apparently transferred from there to Anlo territory in the southeastern region of modern-day Ghana. The early trade towns of Hueda were points of confluence for deities of African and Atlantic origins and socio-religious crucibles, where the accumulative aesthetic of local religious traditions annealed newfound Vodun onto the Huedan pantheon.” §REF§ (Norman 2009, 192) Norman, Neil L. 2009. ‘Powerful Pots, Humbling Holes, and Regional Ritual Processes: Towards an Archaeology of Huedan Vodun, ca. 1650-1727. The African Archaeological Review. Vol. 26:3. Pp 187-218. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KF3F2N46\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KF3F2N46 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Sync_rel_pra_ind_beli", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "In the later part of the nineteenth century the people of Kaffa were nominally Christian, while preserving some traditional elements. The quote below shows that even the kings who held on to traditional beliefs participated in Christian festivities. The quote also mentions that the people of Kaffa built a traditional feast house in honour of St. George using traditional and Christian elements. “One of the most striking and dramatic examples of northern Ethiopian influences in Kafa is recorded by Cechhi, who in 1882 watched the Kafa festival of Mashkaro (the word Mashkaro comes from the Amharic Masqal, the feast of the cross which is observed in September). Cecchi saw the king of the Kafa partake in this royal feast and noted that the royal banners displayed […] on their mast head the symbol of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Eastern rites cross. Cecchi noted that aside from those Kafa people who had converted to Catholicism after 1885 when the first representative of the Mission Consolata arrived, all the people were nominal Christians. They referred to St. George, for who they had built a bare k’eto (feast house); they knew the generalized version of the Ethiopian formula, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost; they observed certain feasts by abstaining from meat and milk; and they celebrated the most common feasts of northern Ethiopia, i.e., Masqal, explained above.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 272) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2A389XGK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2A389XGK </b></a> §REF§" } ] }