Religious Fragmentation List
A viewset for viewing and editing Religious Fragmentations.
GET /api/rt/religious-fragmentations/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 135, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/religious-fragmentations/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/religious-fragmentations/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Regarding this variable, expert Edward Shaughnessy has acknowledge that there is not a lot of information about religion in the Western Zhou period. \r\n\r\n\"With the social and political decline of the later Zhou, the people began to question the power and motivations of Tian. If Tian loved the people, why was He not powerful enough to overcome the forces of chaos? If Tian was all-powerful, why was He punishing the people with war and starvation? Many poems of the Book of Poetry (Shijing ) express skepticism and disillusionment about Tian, charging Tian with powerlessness or indifference, even going so far as to question the god’s very existence. [...] [R]eligious practices fell into disuse, and philosophical texts of the later Zhou are brazenly skeptical about the existence or efficacy of the spirits [...].\" §REF§(Nadeau 2012: 33) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5HX5CPPS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5HX5CPPS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The periods of the Spring and Autumn (770–479 BCE ) and the Warring States (479–221 BCE ) saw intensive debate and mutual transformation among different schools of thought that were sponsored or patronized by different political authorities, either at the state or the powerful family level. As far as religious institutions are concerned, however, none of these so-called schools constituted an independent religious system. In this sense, we can safely say that religious diversity in its full-blown form did not become a critical issue in China until after the arrival of Buddhism in the Later Han dynasty (25–220 CE ).\" §REF§(Xinzhong 2013: 65) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MMMJFGZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MMMJFGZP </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Emergence of the White Lotus Buddhist sect. “In another edict of May 21, 1800, the young emperor said that the two characters ‘White Lotus’ (bai lian, 白蓮), like other sectarian words, ‘have been commonly used in Buddhist scriptures. How can we label it as heterodox?’ (JQSYD 2000: vol. 5, 267) Later he went so far as to proclaim that: ‘The genuine White Lotus sectarians are good people of our Great Qing’ (QZQWS 1981: vol. 2, 331). All of these documents fundamentally changed the meaning of being a White Lotus believer after forcing the Qing government, for the first time, to officially recognize the validity of this religion, at least in name. Jiaqing drew an important line between peaceful and rebellious White Lotus participants and laid down the policy of ‘punishing the rebels, not the sectarians’. In these edicts, Jiaqing reached a reluctant compromise with the sect and relaxed state coercive sanctions against its practices. This practical and tolerant policy changed the long-established imperial law against the White Lotus group and set a brand-new tone for the official attitude toward this sectarian tradition in the late Qing. Moreover, the new approach relaxed the stringent limits set by the Qianlong emperor on acceptable forms of religious mobilization, and it thereby eased the mounting tensions between state and society.” §REF§ (Wang 2009, 37-38) Wang, Wensheng. 2009. ‘Social Crises and Political Reform during the Jiaqing Reign of Qing China, 1796-1810s’ In From Early Tang Court Debates to China's Peaceful Rise Edited by Friederike Assandri and Dora Martins. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FC22QFU9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FC22QFU9 </b></a> §REF§ “Led by disciples of the White Lotus movement, a millenarian sect of Amidist Buddhism, the rebellion began as a protest against excessive taxation, but developed into a more generalized attack against Manchu rule. Followers were attracted to White Lotus ideology (which combined elements of Daoism, Buddhism, and Manichaeism) and religious practices, which included meditation, martial arts exercises, mantra recitation, divination, and other ceremonial activities. White Lotus leaders encouraged their followers to “oppose the Qing and restore the Ming” (fanqing fuming 反清復明), promising personal salvation in return for their involvement.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 308) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"This leads us to the second characteristic of Qing Daoism: the growth of lay organizations and practices. Apart from the low status of the clergy, this growth was also encouraged by imperial Confucianism, established by the Qng emperors on the model of their Ming predecessors, which was accompanied by bringing certain sections of the clergy into the civil service (Berling 1980, 4 7-48). It is interesting to note that one of the most celebrated laymen of the Manchu dynasty was Emperor Yongzheng who showed how one could combine the official functions associated with Confucian doctrine with a personal belief in Buddhism and Daoism. His support of the unity of the three teachings (sanjiao) encouraged increased lay practice, and promoted a lay religious life. [...] At the same time, this increased lay activity encouraged new forms of popular and lay Daoism. They found expression in morality books, the revelation of precious scrolls and spirit-writing cults--all predominantly laycentered, oriented toward popular religion and strongly inspired by Daoist beliefs and practices. There were local Daoist schools, spirit-writing groups and sectarian associations following Daoist teachings that were outside the range of imperial control and beyond the reach of the official arm of the clergy. They paved the way for the form Daoist popular practice still takes in China today.\"" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The periods of the Spring and Autumn (770–479 BCE ) and the Warring States (479–221 BCE ) saw intensive debate and mutual transformation among different schools of thought that were sponsored or patronized by different political authorities, either at the state or the powerful family level. As far as religious institutions are concerned, however, none of these so-called schools constituted an independent religious system. In this sense, we can safely say that religious diversity in its full-blown form did not become a critical issue in China until after the arrival of Buddhism in the Later Han dynasty (25–220 CE ).\" §REF§(Xinzhong 2013: 65) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MMMJFGZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MMMJFGZP </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Finally, new institutionalized sects took shape in the late twelfth century in north China under the regime of the Jurchen Jin, most notably the Complete Perfection ( Quanzhen ) school, which would dominate Daoist monasticism for the next millennium.\" §REF§(Chao 2012: 110) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P525KJ33\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P525KJ33 </b></a>§REF§ \"But popular religious fervor was perhaps even stronger in Taoism than in Buddhism, and several new sects or religions appeared in north China during the twelfth century.\" §REF§(Franke 1994: 317) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2QG2628P\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2QG2628P </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"With the social and political decline of the later Zhou, the people began to question the power and motivations of Tian. If Tian loved the people, why was He not powerful enough to overcome the forces of chaos? If Tian was all-powerful, why was He punishing the people with war and starvation? Many poems of the Book of Poetry (Shijing ) express skepticism and disillusionment about Tian, charging Tian with powerlessness or indifference, even going so far as to question the god’s very existence. [...] [R]eligious practices fell into disuse, and philosophical texts of the later Zhou are brazenly skeptical about the existence or efficacy of the spirits [...].\" §REF§(Nadeau 2012: 33) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5HX5CPPS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5HX5CPPS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No discussion of religious fragmentation was found in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“It has been argued above that from the fourteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the spread of I slam in Java created the possibility of an Islamic and Javanese identity as a synthesis of both traditions. There was not. However, universal acceptance of this, so far as can be judged from the fragmentary evidence. Sultan Agung was the great reconciler of the se traditions. mobilizing the political , cultural. social. and supernatural authority of the monarchy. This did not however lead to the irrevocable establishment of Javanized Islam (or Islamized Javaneseness) as the dominant paradigm of Javanese society led by the monarch. For Agung 's son Amangkurat I and in the years of warfare j u. t described . his grandson Amangkurat II stood in opposition to forces who conceived of themselves in Islamic terms. Amangkurat I 's slaughter of religious leaders set a pattern still seen in the holy wars declared by his son's opponents. Here Islamic identity was shaped by the kraton 's enemies. The dynasty 's dependence on its kiifir allies in the Dutch East India Company only entrenched this new pattern. Now the king was not the leader in creating an Islamized state and society. Rather, the king -dependent on foreign non-Muslim military support - was the enemy of those who sought a more Islamized society.” §REF§ (Ricklefs 2006: 66-67) Merle Calvin Ricklefs, 2006. Mystic Synthesis in Java: A History of Islamization from the Fourteenth to the Early Nineteenth Centuries. Norwalk, CT: EastBridge Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JKGH84GW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JKGH84GW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“In this dynasty [Kediri] the syncretism of Buddhism and Hindu-Çiva resulted in the Buddha-Çiva religion. The syncretism led into a compromise and harmonious relationship, because religions need each other. Syncretism did not only happen between these two religions but also with the folk religions knows as animism and dynamism. Syncretism took place smoothly because there were similarities between the three belief systems, both in the structure and the principles: the existence of a Super Being having a particular position; the existence of worship and sacrifice as well as rites, magic, magical authority, mythology, and other rituality. This situation was conducive to the creation of an attitude of give and take among the co-existing religions, as a necessity of survival.” §REF§ (Wasim in Pye et al. 2012: 86) Wasim, Alef Theria, 2012. “Religious Ecology and the Study of Religions”, in Michael Pye, Abuddarhman, Mas’ud, Alef Theria Wasim, and Edith Franke (eds.), Religious Harmony: Problems, Practice, and Education. Proceedings of the Regional Conference of the International Association for the History of Religions. Yogyakarta and Semarang, Indonesia. September 27th - October 3rd, 2004. (Berlin: De Gruyter), pp. 85-98. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RBZCU8KV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RBZCU8KV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 234, "name": "et_ethiopian_k", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1620 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Interestingly, Gäbrä Iyäsus was himself part of a minority group, the Ǝwosṭateans, which suffered from the persecutions of hegemonic Christians since around the year 1300. The group was considered as heretic and “Jewish” by the ruling clerics and for around a century after their emergence, the Ǝwosṭateans presented a serious threat to established doctrines. “Despite the violent opposition of kings, bishops, and other Church leaders, the Ēwosṭatian movement flourished in the frontier areas of the north where they enjoyed local support” (Kaplan 1984, 39). [...] Zärʾa Yaʿəqob’s father Dawit II already promoted the cult of Mary, but his son excelled him in his zealous fight for the correct veneration of Mary. Moreover, he was striving to cleanse the Christian Church of Ethiopia from alleged Jewish and heretic influences as well as magic and otherwise unwanted elements. \"Ethiopian Church history in this period becomes very complex, as there was a good number of groups which refused to accept the innovations of the emperor and some groups split from official church doctrine. Severe punishment and persecution of these groups were the result, and the alleged “Jews” were among those who suffered most from the emperor.\" §REF§(Dege-Müller 2018: 280-284) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8J6P8FCQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8J6P8FCQ </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"Religiously, there is no substantial evidence to suggest that the Samanids were anything but orthodox Hanafi Sunnis; it should be noted that there was a brief flirtation by certain elements of the Samanid military (particularly a general named al-Husain al-Marwazi) with Isma’ili Shi‘i preachers in the 920s, but by and large Shi‘is and heterodox groups were considered anathema by the authorities.\" §REF§Mitchell, C.P. 2006. Samanids. In Meri, J.W. and Bacharach (eds) Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia pp. 691-693. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DEU4G64K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DEU4G64K </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The spread of the cabalistic ideas of the Hurufiyya, the rise of the extremist Musha’sha’, the renewed activities of the Nizari Isma’ilis, the charismatic appeal of the Nurbakhshiyya and the Ni’matullahiyya, and the incipient Qizilbash movement operating among the Turkmen nomads of Azerbaijan and eastern Anatolia, all contributed to the socio-religious ferment which characterized the turn of the century. What these heretical movements had in common was an amalgam of Shi’ite and Sufi ideas with a messianism that was linked to the promise of the establishment of social justice.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 211) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§ “[…] the bulk of the population, both urban and rural, although for the most part Sunni, had since the Mongol period been affected to a considerable degree by Shi’ite, or at least pro-‘Alid, influences that had become intermingled with Sufi currents. This blending of Sunni, Sufi, and Shi’ite elements resulted in a certain ambivalence, if not outright promiscuity, in the religious climate that was conducive to the spawning and spread of various heretical movements.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 211) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§ “[…] a definition of the components of the madhhab under the first Safavids: an extremist type of sufism — which did not prevent the profession of juridical Shafi'ism — influenced by the Kurdish (Ahl-i haqq) and Turkish (Bektashi) aspects of Qizilbash religious beliefs, but possibly also by Nuqtavi elements known to have been present (see below) in Gllan, the traditional refuge of the Shaikhs. Its approach was therefore of a heretical type which cannot be strictly characterised as Shi’a or non-Shi’a: such was Shafi'i sufism, which became the ideological banner of so composite a movement as that of the Qizilbash, engaged in difficult political manoeuvres with both the Shi’a Qara Quyiinlu and the orthodox Aq Quyunlu, which were rendered even more complicated by innumerable ties of blood-relationship in no way determined by religious sympathies.” §REF§ (Amoretti 1986, 620) Amoretti, B.S. 1986. ‘Religion in the Timurid and Safavid Periods’. In The Cambridge History of Iran in Seven Volumes. Edited by Peter Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q5K4AIN4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q5K4AIN4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence." }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence." }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence." }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Judging from the fact that the consulted literature does not mention the presence of religious minorities, it seems reasonable to infer absence." }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“The variety of symbols in the shrines suggests to me that these symbols do not indicate separate goddesses, but different aspects of the same goddess as Evans suggested. Some symbols like the snake and bird are specific indicators; some symbols such as the horns of consecration may be general sacred markers. Therefore figures and equipment with specific and general symbols could be used together in specific rituals and perhaps figures and equipment with the symbols of different aspects might be used together in rituals where the different aspects were worshipped together. Thus the snake goddess figure might be in the same shrine with a bird goddess or two aspects might even be represented by one figure on which both the snake and the bird appear as at Kannia. That these figures represent the same goddess with separate aspects could explain why equipment with different symbols might be found in a shrine with only snake goddess figures as at Gournia” §REF§ (Gesell 2010, 138) Gesell, Geraldine C. 2010. ‘The snake goddesses of the LM IIIB and LM IIIC periods’. In British School at Athens Studies: CRETAN OFFERINGS: Studies in honour of Peter Warren. Vol. 18. Pp. 131-139. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UMSJTJI2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UMSJTJI2 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“The variety of symbols in the shrines suggests to me that these symbols do not indicate separate goddesses, but different aspects of the same goddess as Evans suggested. Some symbols like the snake and bird are specific indicators; some symbols such as the horns of consecration may be general sacred markers. Therefore figures and equipment with specific and general symbols could be used together in specific rituals and perhaps figures and equipment with the symbols of different aspects might be used together in rituals where the different aspects were worshipped together. Thus the snake goddess figure might be in the same shrine with a bird goddess or two aspects might even be represented by one figure on which both the snake and the bird appear as at Kannia. That these figures represent the same goddess with separate aspects could explain why equipment with different symbols might be found in a shrine with only snake goddess figures as at Gournia” §REF§ (Gesell 2010, 138) Gesell, Geraldine C. 2010. ‘The snake goddesses of the LM IIIB and LM IIIC periods’. In British School at Athens Studies: CRETAN OFFERINGS: Studies in honour of Peter Warren. Vol. 18. Pp. 131-139. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UMSJTJI2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UMSJTJI2 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“Although a few scholars still claim otherwise, we cannot, from the dirt of Syria-Palestine, distinguish Israelite from other Canaanite religious practices (Noll 2001a, pp. 140–64). This is not surprising; identical environment and culture results in very similar religious experiences and behaviors. One should not expect archaeological data to betray an Israelite religion that is significantly distinctive from its Canaanite context” §REF§(Noll 66) Noll, K. L. ‘Canaanite Religion’. Religion Compass 1, no. 1 (January 2007): 61–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2006.00010.x. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WPA9AA4T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WPA9AA4T </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Perhaps one of the most obvious innovations in religion in this period was the development of various sects. Sects were probably already developing in the Persian period …, but the sects which came to be most important (Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes) seem to have originated sometime in the aftermath of the Maccabean revolt.” §REF§(Grabbe 82) Grabbe, Lester L. 2000. Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NKFIXZHF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NKFIXZHF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“There is really no serious ground to assign individual pantheons to each polity. Nothing in the texts or in the archaeological record suggests differences in religious beliefs and practices.” §REF§(Sader 188) Sader, Hélène S. 2019. The History and Archaeology of Phoenicia. Archaeology and Biblical Studies, Number 25. Atlanta: SBL Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9LYVUJ7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9LYVUJ7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Doctrinal schisms and their correlates in architectural violence continued to be part of the cultural life of the Muslim communities of north India well into the sultanate period, following a pattern familiar from Khurasan in the preceding two centuries.” §REF§ Flood, F. B. (2005). Ghurid Monuments and Muslim Identities: Epigraphy and Exegesis in Twelfth-century Afghanistan. The Indian Economic & Social History Review, 42(3), 263–294, 288–289. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UQBED87\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UQBED87 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The popular, devotional sects were the final stage in Kamakura Buddhism, and both ideologically and sociologically represent its greatest autonomy from the Buddhism which had gone before. Under the definition of Kamakura Buddhism given above, there were three, not five, such sects: the Jōdo Shuf, the Jōdo Shinshū, and the Nichiren Shu. These groups and their founders are too well known to discuss here, but it is important to note that they were the first real sects in Japanese Buddhism. Each of their founders broke with Tendai over its corruption and their failure to find salvation within its ranks, and these breaks were total, involving loss of ordination and exile. After finding assurance of salvation in their respective devotions, each attracted a circle of disciples by personal charisma alone.” §REF§ (Foard, 280) Foard, James. 1980. ‘In Search of a Lost Reformation: A Reconsideration of Kamakura Buddhism’. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. Vol. 7.4. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9TSI8C9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T9TSI8C9 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The trend toward Shinto-Buddhist amalgamation was greatly enhanced by the establishment of the Tendai and the Shingon schools of Buddhism during the ninth century in the early Heian period.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 158) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§“The two most significant religious movements during the early Heian period were the Tendai School, systemized by Dengyō Daishi, and the Shingon school formulated by Kōbō Daishi. Both stressed the monastic discipline, ‘esoteric’ (mikkyō) cults, and alliance with Shinto, and both considered it their primary duty to support the throne and the government. Shortly after the time of Dengyō Daishi and Kōbō Daishi, however, both schools degenerated into magico-religious cults, offering appropriate rituals for all conceivable occasions. […] Related to this development was the order of the mountain ascetics (shugen-dō) heirs of the shamanistic Buddhism of the Nara Period.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 58) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§“Around the middle of the Heian period the Amida cult came into vogue. Faith in the mercy of Amida had not been unknown to Buddhists both in China and Japan before that time. What was unique in the Heian period was that pleasure-loving aristocrats invoked the holy name of Amida, not for deliverance from the chain of existences but for the prolongation of luxury, pomp, and comfort into the next world.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 59) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“But because no written Japanese records of that day have been preserved, and Korean and Chinese accounts do not tell us much about contemporary life on the Japanese islands, the Yamato period has long been considered a dark and puzzling stretch of prehistory.” §REF§ (Brown 1993, 108) Brown, Delmer. 1993. ‘The Yamato Kingdom. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Edited by Delmer E. Brown. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FDFQIWT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5FDFQIWT </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "NB Shinto scholar Helen Hardacre argues that the word “syncretism” does not adequately reflect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism. “[T]he question of syncretism with respect to Shinto and Buddhism cannot be resolved in the abstract. We do not find that the Kami disappear in formulations dominated by Buddhist intellectual paradigms and divinities. Instead, the associations of particular Kami and Buddhas in specific sites defined the parameters of religious life there. When we examine religious life in terms of specific sites, we find a spectrum of relations, ranging from competition between sites to struggles for dominance within a single site to ceremonial and festivals that project an image of unity or harmony. […] The term syncretism not only fails to do justice to the complexity of this historical reality, but also obscures the variety of intellectual, religious, and institutional relations structuring religious life.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 145) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n”Several newly founded popular religions of late Tokugawa times each won thousands of believers. These include the Kurozumi (1814), Tenri (1838), and Konkō (1857) religions, among others. Each was founded by a man or a woman who experienced a divine revelation or a miraculous cure. They drew diversely on Shinto or Buddhist elements. These religions gained support from masses of peasants who had come to expect that a great change was imminent. […] The authorities viewed these groups with much anxiety.” §REF§ (Gordon 2003, 45) Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WKE76S3C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WKE76S3C </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Japanese Buddhists attempted to interpret and appropriate the historic tradition of Buddhism in terms of their particular religious heritage as well as their concrete experiences, and in this process a new form of Buddhist tradition that is more directly relevant to the Japanese world of meaning came into existence.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 209) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Despite the attempt of nobles to alter sacred propositions and the social practices that they implied, no major social transformation occurred at San José Mogote. In about 500 Bc, monumental construction activities on Mound I ceased and the site may have declined still further in size (Kowalewsk: et al 1989 89-90; Marcus and Flannery 1°96. 139) Other Rosario phase sites in the Etla arm also declined in size or were completely abandoned (Drennan 1976b. Flannery and Marcus 1983b; Kowalewski er al 1989-91; Winter 1972) At the same time, the hilltop center of Monte Alban was founded and rapidly grew into the largest community in the Valley of Oaxaca It is not clear why the people who were embracing this new set of beliefs and practices left San José Mogote to found Monte Alban Factional competition and conflict may have been so intense that a more effective location for defense was sought (Blanton 1978, Marcus and Flannery 1996) The promotion of a new view of the sacred covenant may have been resisted by a significant proportion of people in the San José Mogote polity, in effect creating a legitimation crisis and necessitating a move to a new location It may also have been difficult to construct a new discourse that would come to legitimize the power relations of the emerging Monte Alban state literally on the foundations of the earlier San José Mogote chiefdom. Nobles who were attempting to alter the principles and practices of the sacred covenant were apparently not entirely successful in consolidating power at San José Mogote. Their move to Monte Alban ultimately resulted in a structural transformation that profoundly altered systems of social relations in Oaxaca in ways that even the founders of the site did not foresee” §REF§ (Joyce 2000, 80) Joyce, Arthur A. 2000. ‘The founding of Monte Albán: Sacred propositions and social practices’ In Agency in Archaeology. Edited by Marcia-Anne Dobres and John E. Robb. Routledge: London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7T32SIJP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7T32SIJP </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Emergence of Protestantism, though it may not have been as widespread a phenomenon in this polity as in other parts of Europe--indeed, the following quote suggests it was at least partly seen as a foreign threat. \"Inquisition efforts to combat heresy went far beyond the 1559 prohibition of the works by Carranza and Granada. In the same year, the Inquisition took action against the Protestants of Valladolid and Seville. Several autos de fe (public “acts of faith” proclaiming the penances of Inquisition defendants) took place from 1559 through the 1560s. In 1563 Philip II ordered all bishops to guard against Protestant efforts to spread their heresies in the Spanish kingdoms. Inquisitor General Valdés died in 1566, but the vigilance of Protestants continued into the 1570s. In 1572 the Inquisition received a report that the princess of Béarn in southwest France sought to send Lutherans into Spain as missionaries. By 1578 Inquisition officials had learned that Protestants had printed heretical copies of the New Testament in Castilian, with intentions to circulate the texts in Iberia.\" §REF§(Wasserman-Soler 2020: 30) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBURFN6A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DBURFN6A </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“One of the important events of the Guadalupe phase was the growth of Barrio del Rosario Huitzo from a relatively unimportant San Jose phase hamlet to an important Guadalupe phase civic-ceremonial center with a main residential zone of at least 2.7 ha (exclusive of any outlying barrios) and a ceremonial precinct of at least 3500 m. Design element analyses carried out by S. Plog (1976) suggest that Huitzo and San Jose Mogote were competing ceremonial centers, interacting less and sharing fewer designs on ceramics than would have been predicted on the basis of their proximity. The settlement pattern studies summarized in Figure 3.6 (which were not available at the time Plog did his study) show this dramatically; Huitzo sits all alone at the headwaters of the upper Atoyac, separated by 10 km from its nearest neighbor, while San Jose Mogote appears to be part of an impressive string of communities stretching from Santa Marta Etla to Tierras Largas.” §REF§ (Kowalewski et al. 1983, 53) Kowalewski, Stephen, Fisch, Eva and Flannery, Kent V. 1983. 'San José and Guadalupe Settlement Patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGHQ5URW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RGHQ5URW </b></a> §REF§ During the Guadalupe phase people at both San José Mogote and Huitzo built public buildings made from bun-shaped adobes and earthen fill faced with stone and oriented 8° west of true north. Structure 8 at San José Mogote was a low platform that supported a puddled adobe floor of a large wattle-and-daub building that appears to have been built over the Area C barrio cemetery (see Flannery & Marcus 1994, figure 9.3). It is not clear whether Structure 8 represented a shift in the site’s ceremonial center away from Area A, where Structures 1 and 2 had been built during the San José phase, or if Structure 8 was a ritual building for the Area C barrio only. It is possible that different factions were competing for the ritual participation of community members, although a communitywide ceremonial center might also lie buried within Mound 1, a huge platform that supported Rosario-phase public buildings.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 109-110) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 792, "name": "in_kanva_dyn", "long_name": "Magadha - Kanva Dynasty", "start_year": -75, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“Scholars know very little about the Kanva dynasty or its rulers. [...] In any event, the short-lived Kanva dynasty left little mark on the history of India.” (Middleton, J. 2015: 485)" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 796, "name": "in_gangaridai", "long_name": "Gangaridai", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Very little appears to be known about this polity--the sole sources are Latin and Greek, and therefore may not be entirely reliable, given the geographic and cultural distance between their authors and subject matter. “The veil of darkness that enshrouds the early history of Bengal is partially lifted in the latter half of the fourth century b.c. A considerable portion of the country now constitutes the domain of a powerful nation, whose sway extended over the whole of ancient Vaiiga, and possibly some adjoining tracts. Greek and Latin writers refer to the people as the Gangaridai ( variant Gandaridai) . The Sanskrit equivalent of the term is difficult to determine. Classical scholars take the word to mean \"the people of the Ganges region.\"§REF§(Majumdar 1943: 41) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T4QJ84HB </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“After AD 900, the settlement patterns of the lower Gaira, the Parque Tairona and the Upper Buritaca are similar in content and in the use of strategies of concentration into nucleated settlements. Hundreds of nucleated settlements have been discovered that date after the ninth century: all of them share the same religious icons in metallurgy, lithic and ceramic work. Two of the largest sites found have urban characteristics (water canalization, roads, terraces, clear urban planning). The first one is Pueblito located in the Parque Tairona. The other is Ciudad Perdida located in the Upper Buritaca. Both sites are monumental stone-built settlements located in the humid tropical forest. The sequence of occupation in both are similar. However, the archaeological assemblage is different in terms of the everyday life activities. […] The evidence from the Sierra Nevada reveals a pattern of continual colonization after the sixth century that seems to indicate an intensification of agricultural production and exploitation of new territories by means of terraces and road networks. Fissioning and segmentation were the likely form of colonization. The existence of multiple higher order central places in small regions separated by physiographic barriers seems to be the norm in the litoral as in the case of the Upper Buritaca. The only evidence of some higher sphere of integration above the political units seems to be expressed in the iconography of artefacts such as gold and stone offerings, as well as the architecture of cultic places that clearly indicate that a common religious cult was the only integrative factor above the political factional units of town-chiefdoms that operated in the Sierra Nevada.” §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2001, 13-14) Oyuela-Caycedo, Augusto. 2001. ‘The rise of religious routinization: The study of changes from Shaman to Priestly Elite’. In Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations: Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Context in South America. Edited by John E. Staller and Elizabeth J. Currie. Oxford: Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XBAR6MAV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XBAR6MAV </b></a> §REF§ “lt is my opinion that these artifacts were used in a worship that demanded offerings of exotic materials such as beads, bichrome vessels and ‘jade’ pendants, as well as scarce artifacts of laminated gold. These are the elements of a cult and the first evidence of worship in a broad area where the autonomy of the village continues be the norm, but religious beliefs unite farther and farther reaching areas. The only common attributes between the regions are the ceremonial artifacts such as the vessels for toasting (imported), the gold (imported), and the plaques (imported), and the existence of cultic places that are related to the worship that a priestly elite demands.” §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2001, 14) Oyuela-Caycedo, Augusto. 2001. ‘The rise of religious routinization: The study of changes from Shaman to Priestly Elite’. In Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations: Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Context in South America. Edited by John E. Staller and Elizabeth J. Currie. Oxford: Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XBAR6MAV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XBAR6MAV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "In a 2023 conversation with Rachel Ainsworth, Yaniv Fox stated that fragmentation was present for some minor sects.\r\n\r\n\r\nThe following quote points to the present of \"heretics\", not to mention a split between Arians and Catholics--however, see Yanix Fox's comment below. “A reasonable interpretation of the religious history of Clovis's reign could thus run as follows: from the moment of his father's death, Clovis had to deal with the catholic hierarchy; nevertheless he remained a pagan, even after his marriage to a catholic wife. Drawn into the complex political world of the 490s he showed an interest in the arianism of his fellow monarchs, as well as in the Catholicism of Chlothild, and some members of his court were actually baptized as arians; he himself, although he may have already been converted to Christianity, did not commit himself firmly either to Catholicism or arianism, although he certainly showed an interest in the views of the heretics. His final decision was possibly taken at the time of the war with Alaric, when he may have thought that there was propaganda value to be gained by standing as the defender of the catholic Church; he was subsequently baptised, probably in 508.”§REF§Wood, I. (2014) The Merovingian Kingdoms 450 - 751. 1st edn. Taylor and Francis. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/1556530/the-merovingian-kingdoms-450-751-pdf (Accessed: 8 November 2022). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ARUIRN35\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ARUIRN35 </b></a> §REF§\r\n\r\n\"The Clovis we get from Gregory is wholly a literary confection, and thus any conclusions about his motivations for going to war with Alaric II are up in the air.\"§REF§(Yaniv Fox, 2023, pers. comm.)§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Of more immediate importance, as far as the majority of the population was concerned, was the determination of the bishops to control non-monastic sites associated with the cult of the saints. Here it is important to realize that there was no formal process of canonization. The creation of a saint-cult depended essentially on two factors: the first was the existence of a congregation willing to recognize that a particular place, usually a tomb, was invested with special power; the second was the official recognition of the site by the Church authorities, that is the local bishop. The significance of either of these factors varied from site to site; at times cults appear largely to have been promoted by the Church hierarchy, or by a small group with a precise, often family, interest in the new saint – this seems to be the norm for the development of the cults of the aristocratic saints of the seventh century. Instances where the motive force for the recognition of a cult site comes from the congregation are rare, but are particularly instructive for an understanding of the concern of the Church to control places of supposedly numinous power. The devotion of the people of Dijon to an obscure tomb in one of the cemetries outside the town was frowned on by the local bishop, Gregory of Langres, who regarded it as an act of pagan superstition. He may well have been right. Nevertheless on failing to extirpate this superstition, Gregory 'learned' in a vision that the tomb was that of the martyr Benignus, and he incorporated the site in a new church.” §REF§ Wood, I. (2014) The Merovingian Kingdoms 450 - 751. 1st edn. Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ARUIRN35\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ARUIRN35 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Probably the gravest challenge facing the Valois monarchs in the sixteenth century was the rise of Protestantism which threatened to destroy the kingdom’s unity. Religious toleration was unknown in sixteenth century France. ‘One law, one faith, one king’ was the rule that prevailed. The king was seen as God’s earthly lieutenant, and his coronation endowed him with semi-priestly character: it was not only a crowning, but a consecration performed by the archbishop. [...] At his coronation, he solemnly swore to defend the church and rid his kingdom of heresy. This duty had not been seriously tested for three centuries, but in the sixteenth century heresy in the form of Protestantism threatened to tear the kingdom apart. But heresy needed to be recognised.” §REF§ Knecht, R.J. 2004. The Valois - Kings of France1328 - 1589. London: Hambledon and London. pg 177. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WK3ZW5C3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WK3ZW5C3 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“I would suggest there is minimal fragmentation within the kingdom.” §REF§(Susan Broomhall, 2023, pers. comm.)§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The church thus accepted and supported agreat variety of religious orders, following many different customs. It was not, however, prepared to accept heretical religious movements, whose adherents it sought to make outcasts from society, and ultimately crush. Doctrine – as expressed a little later by Saint Thomas Aquinas, for example – was unambiguous on this matter: heresy is a sin which merits not only excommunication but also death, for it is worse to corrupt the faith which is the life of the soul than to issue counterfeit coins which minister to the secular life. Since counterfeiters are justly killed by princes as enemies to the common good, so heretics also deserve the same punishment. The penalties meted out to heretics were consequently often extreme and savage. In the early eleventh century isolated groups of heretics had been identified in France, especially in the decade between 1018 and 1028. A group at Orléans, for example, had denied Christ’s human form and the validity of the sacraments, penance and marriage, and Robert the Pious had intervened to crush it in 1022. The council of Charroux in 1028 had condemned heresy and in the later part of the century the sources are silent on it. In the twelfth century, however, it began to revive again in France as a number of heretical sects were discovered.” §REF§ (Hallam and West 2020: 186) Hallam, Elizabeth and West, Charles. 2020. Capetian France: 987-1328. Third Edition. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 66GFGV49 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Again there are clear indications that suchaction had been foreshadowed, not least by Innocent lll, the pope who was finally provoked in 1208 to declare a crusade against the adherents of the Cathar heresy in France, by then very strongly entrenched. The notorious Albigensian Crusade, which failed to eradicate the heresy but destroyed so much of the cultural, social, and political fabric of Languedoc, would proceed episodically for the next twenty years. Once more, precedent set, it was so much easier to launch crusades against other heretics, for example those against the Stedinger heretics in Germany in 1232, and against Bosnian heretics in 1227 and 1234.” §REF§ Riley-Smith, J. 2001. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. Pg 42. Oxford Universiy Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/36WDE72C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 36WDE72C </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "A new Catholic sect emerged in the mid-1600s called Jansenism. It was especially popular among nuns and had a hostile relationship with the Jesuits. King Louis XIV strongly opposed Jansenism and viewed it as heretical. “Named after Cornelius Jansen (1585–1638), bishop of Ypres and author of the posthumously published Augustinus (1640), Jansenism refers to a movement within Catholic theology that was influential in France and the Low Countries from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth century. Especially in its early period, the Jansenist spirituality practised by the nuns of the convent of Port-Royal-des-Champs and their sympathizers (including B. PASCAL) took the form of a moral and sacramental rigorism that included wariness of frequent participation in the Eucharist. In this as well as in their teaching on grace and sin, Jansenists stood in stark and deliberate opposition to the theology and practice of the Jesuits, who coined the epithet ‘Jansenist’ as a derogatory term for their opponents.” §REF§ (Mcfarland, 2011, 246) Mcfarland, Ian. (2011) “Jansenism” in Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 246-247. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AHMZX42\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9AHMZX42 </b></a> §REF§ “Even though these debates over Augustinus originated in Belgium, they became most volatile in France and resulted in bitter factional struggles involving public denunciations and arrests for heresy.” §REF§ (Kostroun, 2011, 18) Kostroun, Daniella. (2011) Feminism, Absolutism, and Jansenism: Louis XIV and the Port-Royal Nuns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4F97NHJ6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4F97NHJ6 </b></a> §REF§ “The image most commonly used at the time in relation to Jansenism was that of a hydra, whose many heads seemed to go on multiplying. One of the most unexpected of those heads was the famously austere convent of Port-Royal, a diehard minority of whose nuns defied Louis XIV and the Paris church authorities for decades. Alongside the treatment of the Protestants, especially during Louis XIV’s reign, the Jansenist affair (and especially the destruction of Port-Royal) was one of the most egregious instances of the monarchy believing that its relation with the church demanded the pursuit of doctrinal orthodoxy and the elimination of religious dissent, with the result that persecution drew far more attention to, and even support for, such dissent than it would have otherwise attracted.” §REF§ (Bergin, 2014, 182) Bergin, Joseph. (2014) The Politics of Religion in Early Modern France. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M2WQJQNR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M2WQJQNR </b></a> §REF§ “If the 1650s and 1660s witness unprecedented co-operation between papacy and monarchy over the Jansenist question, it was, in part at least, because they took a broadly similar view of the problem they faced, although, the methods they envisaged for its resolution were not always identical. Jansenists of every hue were, in such a view, rebellious, stubborn defiers of established authority.” §REF§ (Bergin, 2014, 198) Bergin, Joseph. (2014) The Politics of Religion in Early Modern France. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M2WQJQNR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M2WQJQNR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Another religious development concentrated in France was the rise of Jansenism during the ‘century of saints’ and implementation of Tridentine reforms. French historians agree that the significance of Jansenism was totally disproportionate to the numbers of true Jansenists - fifty to sixty nuns at Port-Royal, flanked by a dozen or so solitaires. To us, the most curious and important aspect of French Jansenism was the official response to it. The ‘men of order’, Richelieu and Louis XIV, vehemently opposed a movement of austerity which strenuously condemned frivolity and religious disorder.”§REF§ Monter, W. 1983. Ritual, Myth and Magic in Early Modern Europe. Brighton: The Harvester Press Ltd. Pgs 86, 87. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IDZHJRP4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IDZHJRP4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Finally, settlements systems in each region began to fill out. Prior to the 1000 cal b.c. mark, socially differentiated villages and centers were few and far between across Mesoamerica. Rosenswig (2016) refers to this as an archipelago of complexity that was united through a common set of rituals and iconography (see also Stark 2017). After 1000 cal b.c., most areas within regions filled up with settled villages.” §REF§ (Nichols 2019, 251) Nichols, Deborah L. 2018. ‘The Altica Project: Reframing the Formative Basin of Mexico’. In Ancient Mesoamerica. Vol. 30. Pp. 247–265. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5PXURK49\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5PXURK49 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“The Late Archaic and initial Formative of the central highlands of Mexico are still poorly understood. Niederberger (1976, 1979) found evidence for year-round exploitation of the lake environment at Tlapacoya-Zohapilco around 2500-2000 B.C., suggestive of early sedentism tied to abundant natural resources. There is not, however, evidence for large Late Archaic populations, sedentary or otherwise, and indeed, the Formative is likewise poorly known before approximately 1400 B.C. The Nevada phase in the basin is identified primarily from Zohapilco. The best record of pre-1400 B.C settlement comes from lower-lying areas of Morelos and Puebla (Aviles 1997; Cyphers Guillen and Grove 1987; Grove 1974; Hirth 1987). It is only with Manantial and related phases beginning circa 1150 B.C. (2950 B.P. in radiocarbon years) that occupation is documented across much of central Mexico (e.g., Aufdermauer 1973; Niederberger 1987; Ramirez et al. 2000; Tolstoy 1989).” §REF§ (Lesure et al. 2006, 475-476) Lesure et al. 2006. ‘Chronology, Subsistence, and the Earliest Formative of Central Tlaxcala, Mexico’. Latin American Antiquity. Vol. 17:4. Pp. 474-492. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMXH6V7V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMXH6V7V </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“The archaeological record of the Archaic period (ca. 8000–2000 BC) is still very fragmentary, and this hinders understanding both of the change from foraging societies to kin-based villages and of the development of early hierarchical polities.” §REF§ (Nichols & Pool 2012, 13) Nichols, Deborah L. and Pool, Christopher A. 2012. ‘Mesoamerican Archaeology: Recent Trends’. In The Oxford handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Edited by Deborah L. Nichols and Christopher A. Pool. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I2EHZSUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I2EHZSUW </b></a> §REF§ “Even greater difficulties are faced when it comes to reconstructing social organization, ceremonialism, and ideology from the archaeological traces of people whose material manifestations of these phenomena, even where preserved, were very limited.” §REF§ (Zeitlin & Zeitlin 2000, 50) Zeitlin Robert N. and Zeitlin Judith Francis. 2000. ‘The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica’. In The Cambridge History of the native People of the Americas. Vol II: Mesoamerica. Part I. Edited by Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. MacLeod. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C6KJ9FU9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C6KJ9FU9 </b></a> §REF§" } ] }