Religious Fragmentation List
A viewset for viewing and editing Religious Fragmentations.
GET /api/rt/religious-fragmentations/?format=api
{ "count": 135, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/religious-fragmentations/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests a significant degree of inter-ethnic mixing, but it remains unclear to what extent this was accompanied by any kind of religious fragmentation. \"Perhaps, like the situation south of the Ohio-Mississippi confluence, the diversity of ceramic styles in the American Bottom may also have resulted, in part, from the migrations of small groups into the American Bottom, co-residing with the local villagers who lived there during the tenth and early eleventh centuries. […] Such exotic potters seem to have continued using the styles of their natal communities, or at least certain attributes of those styles, sometimes producing a bewildering diversity of hybridized construction techniques and paste recipes. “At the same time as exotic potters may have immigrated into the American Bottom, there is evidence of intensive between-village intercourse in that same stretch of floodplain. […] In other words, that the pots of one’s neighbours ended up in the refuse of one’s own village probably indicates periodic inter-village feasting, with hosts and guests alternating between villages from event to event (Pauketat 2000a).\"§REF§(Pauketat 2004: 59-60) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYTS9YS6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JYTS9YS6 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests a significant degree of inter-ethnic mixing, but it remains unclear to what extent this was accompanied by any kind of religious fragmentation. \"Perhaps, like the situation south of the Ohio-Mississippi confluence, the diversity of ceramic styles in the American Bottom may also have resulted, in part, from the migrations of small groups into the American Bottom, co-residing with the local villagers who lived there during the tenth and early eleventh centuries. […] Such exotic potters seem to have continued using the styles of their natal communities, or at least certain attributes of those styles, sometimes producing a bewildering diversity of hybridized construction techniques and paste recipes. “At the same time as exotic potters may have immigrated into the American Bottom, there is evidence of intensive between-village intercourse in that same stretch of floodplain. […] In other words, that the pots of one’s neighbours ended up in the refuse of one’s own village probably indicates periodic inter-village feasting, with hosts and guests alternating between villages from event to event (Pauketat 2000a).\"§REF§(Pauketat 2004: 59-60) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYTS9YS6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JYTS9YS6 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"As little is known of sociopolitical organization of Patrick Phase communities, even less is known of their religion and expressive culture.\"§REF§(Christiansen 2001: 260) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F8GJ2HZF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F8GJ2HZF </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 32, "name": "us_cahokia_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Though authors differ as to whether this was a top-down or bottom-up process, this era saw the emergence of Mississippian culture in a process that was characterised by hybridity or homogenization (depending on the source) rather than fragmentation. \"The Lohmann phase process of cultural homogenization (Emerson 1997; Pauketat 1996, 1998) across the American Bottom and adjacent areas demonstrated the social and cultural power of a central Cahokian elite to initiate change. In such early complex societies both the historic and archaeological records often note the presence of marked enclaves of 'foreigners'. Such foreigners are clearly 'others' to the residential populations. They may hold an ambivalent status within the local social and political structure or actually be excluded from participation in certain rituals and community functions.\"§REF§(Emerson and Hargrave 2000, 18). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZQ3PQ2R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VZQ3PQ2R </b></a>§REF§ \"I would argue that a new political order at Cahokia did not cause the new Mississippian technologies and material culture. This is because change was located within the encounters of difference. It was within the thirdspaces of those encounters that new meanings and new forms were conceived and combined in the re-created spaces of Cahokia. [...] It resulted in what we now call Mississippian.\"§REF§(Alt 2006, 302) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VKAWPV5E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VKAWPV5E </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "us_cahokia_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests greater opportunity for religious fragmentation at this time. \"The decline of centralized power in the American Bottom would have encouraged increased activity by ever-present political factions, but probably would have also allowed many incipient or previously suppressed ethnic factions to reemerge.\" §REF§(Emerson and Hargrave 2000, 18). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZQ3PQ2R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VZQ3PQ2R </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "us_cahokia_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1275 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests greater opportunity for religious fragmentation at this time. \"The decline of centralized power in the American Bottom would have encouraged increased activity by ever-present political factions, but probably would have also allowed many incipient or previously suppressed ethnic factions to reemerge.\" §REF§(Emerson and Hargrave 2000, 18). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZQ3PQ2R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VZQ3PQ2R </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 415, "name": "in_ganga_ca", "long_name": "Chalcolithic Middle Ganga", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -601 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"We do not have any indication about the religious beliefs of the Chalcolithic inhabitants of the Middle Ganga Plain.\"§REF§(Singh 2004: 149) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D6NWCU5A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D6NWCU5A </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"An additional factor to be considered is that, during this period, there was a distinct west-to-east cultural gradient in the Ganga valley, with Brahmanical influences much stronger in the west than in the east. It was in the eastern zone that Buddhism and Jainism arose, and it was likely that key elements of Upanishadic soteriology also developed here (Bronkhorst, 2011a). [...] As for why this stir of spiritual and philosophical speculation arose, it was almost certainly a by-product of social change. For city-dwellers, the easy flow of rural life with its slow rhythms and predictability was long in the past. Old beliefs and certainties were sharply challenged in this newer cosmopolitan social world in which culturally diverse groups were having to find new ways of dealing with each other while living cheek-by-jowl in crowded urban conditions.\"§REF§(Babb 2020: 18) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KWR3R7US\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KWR3R7US </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 397, "name": "in_chola_emp", "long_name": "Chola Empire", "start_year": 849, "end_year": 1280 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The following suggests both consolidation at the top level and fragmentation at the bottom level. “The most significant religious development in medieval South India was the development of bhakti devotionalism and the infusion of popular Hinduism with the idea of salvation through intense devotion to a personal deity. The reigns of Rājarāja I and his son Rājēndra I, spanning the period 985-1044 A.D., represent a period of consolidation between the innovations of the earlier bhakti enthusiasts and the new departures under later innovators such as Rāmānuja, around the beginning of the 12th century A.D.) Their reigns were important for a strengthening of the institutional framework of sectarian Hinduism in general and of Śaivism in particular. The early decades of imperial Chola rule, from the late 9th century up through the reigns of these two kings, constituted the period in which the Tamil Śaivite canon was standardized and reduced to systematic order. This was followed by a period in which popular Hinduism gave rise to new movements which managed to achieve both an institutional coherence and a new doctrinal synthesis which challenged the established philosophical system of Śaṅkara on the more abstruse plane of metaphysical theory.” §REF§ (Spencer 1969, 46) Spencer, George W. 1969. ‘Religious Networks and Royal Influence in Eleventh Century South India’. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol 12: 1. Pp. 42-56. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5XDG98BE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5XDG98BE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 634, "name": "sl_jaffa_k", "long_name": "Jaffna", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Significantly too, doctrinal disputes had little or nothing to do with the tensions among the bhikkhus of this period. The struggles between orthodoxy and the Mahayanists had long since been resolved by the absorption within the ‘official’ form of Buddhism of some of the doctrines, rituals and deities of heterodoxy.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981: 192) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 743, "name": "nl_dutch_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Dutch Empire", "start_year": 1815, "end_year": 1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Schisms occurred among Christian groups but magistrates usually banned dissident factions, favouring less problematic ones. \"A consistent policy among magistrates everywhere was to divide and rule, to suppress the more disaffected elements in dissident groups and to favour those loyal to the existing regime. This assumes of course that the Calvinist magistrates closely monitored dissident communities. We know that they did so from the early years of the Revolt. They kept themselves informed of the comings, goings and doings of dissident clergy. These were expected to preach obedience to lawful authorities, civic morality and the virtues of social harmony. Criticism of the political status quo, demanding bizarre devotions or causing schism and unrest within their communities could, and usually did, get dissident clergy banished. When schisms or conflicts occurred within tolerated communities local magistrates often arbitrated to restore the peace. \"§REF§(Spaans 2002) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7KR3GNAS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7KR3GNAS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 628, "name": "sl_dambadeniya", "long_name": "Dambadaneiya", "start_year": 1232, "end_year": 1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Significantly too, doctrinal disputes had little or nothing to do with the tensions among the bhikkhus of this period. The struggles between orthodoxy and the Mahayanists had long since been resolved by the absorption within the ‘official’ form of Buddhism of some of the doctrines, rituals and deities of heterodoxy.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981: 192) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 220, "name": "td_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem Empire", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1380 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No information found in the literature consulted, which focuses almost exclusively on the period following the advent of Islam." }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 679, "name": "se_jolof_emp", "long_name": "Jolof Empire", "start_year": 1360, "end_year": 1549 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "“Although exposed to Islamic influences through Muslim clerics, traders and court advisers, the Djolof Empire, unlike Tekrur resisted Islamization and most leaders and people remained firmly attached to their traditional religious practices. §REF§ (Gellar, 2020) Gellar, Sheldon. 2020. Senegal: An African Nation Between Islam and the West. Second Edition. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZCQVA3UX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZCQVA3UX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 657, "name": "ni_formative_yoruba", "long_name": "Late Formative Yoruba", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "As the following quote shows, this era witnessed the formation of separate \"mega-houses\", each ruled by a chief priest, and each worshipping its own patron deity. This suggest the possibility of some degree of religious fragmentation. \"Each of these mega-House polities, what Ade Obayemi called “mini-states,” was a federation of contiguous Houses separated by stretches of woods that ranged in distance from a few hundred meters to about a kilometer, but a recognizable ruler from an alpha House governed each of these mega-Houses as a corporate unit. The Ìjùgbè mega-House, for example, comprised Ìjùgbè—the alpha House—and four minor Houses: Eranyiba, Igbogbe, Ipa, and Ita-Asin, each with its own leader, who was also its chief priest. [...] The Ifè confederacy was a loose political alliance with no central political offices. Yet the head of the council (possibly chosen by his peers for his charisma, spiritual power, organizational abilities, and number or quality of followers) presided not only over secular matters affecting the confederacy as a whole but also over the rituals and ceremonies that united the confederacy in the worship of a common deity. The most notable and influential of the Ifè confederacy leaders during the tenth or early eleventh century was an individual whom traditions remember as Obatálá Not only did he chair the Ifè confederacy, but he was also the chief priest of the deity, Òram`fè—literally, the Òra of Ifè. Both the confederacy and the deity were instituted to provide a uniform identity, ideology, and organizational platform to the motley of groups who now called themselves Ifè. They needed this unified front in their struggle for self-preservation in what was becoming a very hostile situation between them and other interest groups. Oral traditions credit Obatálá with promoting the adoption of Òram`fè as the unifying deity for the members of Ifè confederacy and as the focus of the annual festival in which all the constituent members of the confederacy were represented.\" §REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 53-55) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 693, "name": "tz_milansi_k", "long_name": "Fipa", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No information found in the literature consulted." }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 626, "name": "zi_mutapa", "long_name": "Mutapa", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1880 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "This variable is difficult to code with confidence due to the paucity of the data available, but the following quotes suggest that, in this region in the precolonial era, there was a certain cultural flexibility in matters of identity and a general similarity of belief, which in turn suggests relatively low rates of religious fragmentation. \"Precolonial Africa was characterized by a large degree of pluralism and flexibility in terms of articulation of belonging. In line with this, the precolonial Kalanga also consisted of more fluid units that assimilated outsiders into the community as long as they accepted their customs, and the sense of obligation and solidarity went beyond that of the nuclear family.\"§REF§(Dube 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3FHTN4Q3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3FHTN4Q3 </b></a>§REF§ \"[T]here existed a large region of broadly similar languages, beliefs and institutions, larger than present-day Zimbabwe and stretching into areas now defined as South Africa, Zambia and Mozambique. Within that zone, there was a constant movement of people, goods, ideas, and a multitude of different self-identifications.\"§REF§(Raftopoulos and Mlambo 2008: 2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U8C75XJD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U8C75XJD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 617, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Suspected unknown due to the antiquity of this quasi-polity, the nature of the data, and the fact that this aspect of the quasi-polity's culture is not mentioned in a recent and comprehensive series of articles on prehistoric West Burkina Faso by Stephen Dueppen." }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 624, "name": "zi_great_zimbabwe", "long_name": "Great Zimbabwe", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "This variable is difficult to code with confidence due to the paucity of the data available, but the following quotes suggest that, in this region in the precolonial era, there was a certain cultural flexibility in matters of identity and a general similarity of belief, which in turn suggests relatively low rates of religious fragmentation. \"Precolonial Africa was characterized by a large degree of pluralism and flexibility in terms of articulation of belonging. In line with this, the precolonial Kalanga also consisted of more fluid units that assimilated outsiders into the community as long as they accepted their customs, and the sense of obligation and solidarity went beyond that of the nuclear family.\"§REF§(Dube 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3FHTN4Q3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3FHTN4Q3 </b></a>§REF§ \"[T]here existed a large region of broadly similar languages, beliefs and institutions, larger than present-day Zimbabwe and stretching into areas now defined as South Africa, Zambia and Mozambique. Within that zone, there was a constant movement of people, goods, ideas, and a multitude of different self-identifications.\"§REF§(Raftopoulos and Mlambo 2008: 2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U8C75XJD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U8C75XJD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 683, "name": "ug_buganda_k_2", "long_name": "Buganda II", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"[A] singular Bugandan religion was common to all Baganda, with a variety of deities called lubaale to whom temples and priests were devoted. While lubaale were considered former clan members, they could be and were worshipped by all Baganda, since “it was the question of locality, not of kinship, that decided to which of the prophets an inquirer should go.” Indeed, according to Mair this is one of several “peculiarities” that “distinguish it from the religious ceremonies of Bantu Africa” along with the lack of any regular obligatory ceremonies.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a>§REF§ Note that Islam and Christianity were introduced towards the end of the period in consideration, but the following quote suggests that tensions between the three religions only became significant in the colonial and post-colonial periods. \"[I]t is clear that the coming of the Arabs and Europeans and the establishment of British colonial rule in the late 19th century did much to destroy a good deal of whatever national solidarity existed in Bugandan society. Foremost was the introduction of Islam in the 1860s and Christianity in the 1870s, which left Buganda – and Uganda – divided among Catholics (who now comprise some 42% of the current population of Uganda), Anglicans (39%) and Muslims (5-11%). No longer did a single religion unite Buganda, and these divisions would come to play a very large role in colonial and post-colonial politics in Buganda.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 612, "name": "ni_nok_1", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Apparent uniformity of belief, but data is scarce. \"As demonstrated by the uniformity of their material culture and their presumed belief system, most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, external contacts within their culture must have existed. However, [...] It has to be considered that the preservation of features in Nok sites is generally poor and that the amount of data is not too large and regionally restricted to a rather small key study area. [...] Bound on what is indisputable, we may safely assert that the standalone peculiarity of the Nok Culture concerns its terracotta sculptures. Excavations have revealed contextual data emphasising their ritual significance - using the term \"ritual\" in a spiritual* context - and their role as materialised expression of a religion. Should it not be possible that the remarkable transregional uniformity of the complex, particularly mirrored by the omnipresence of the sculptures, was caused by the power of rituals and a complex system of beliefs? To accentuate this perspective, the Nok Culture deserves further investigation before the remaining evidence is irreversibly lost by looting which still takes place at many sites in Nigeria every day.\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 251-3) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ES4TRU7R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ES4TRU7R </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 619, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I", "start_year": 701, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Suspected unknown due to the antiquity of this quasi-polity, the nature of the data, and the fact that this aspect of the quasi-polity's culture is not mentioned in a recent and comprehensive series of articles on prehistoric West Burkina Faso by Stephen Dueppen." }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 615, "name": "ni_nok_2", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -900, "end_year": 0 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Apparent uniformity of belief, but data is scarce. \"As demonstrated by the uniformity of their material culture and their presumed belief system, most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, external contacts within their culture must have existed. However, [...] It has to be considered that the preservation of features in Nok sites is generally poor and that the amount of data is not too large and regionally restricted to a rather small key study area. [...] Bound on what is indisputable, we may safely assert that the standalone peculiarity of the Nok Culture concerns its terracotta sculptures. Excavations have revealed contextual data emphasising their ritual significance - using the term \"ritual\" in a spiritual* context - and their role as materialised expression of a religion. Should it not be possible that the remarkable transregional uniformity of the complex, particularly mirrored by the omnipresence of the sculptures, was caused by the power of rituals and a complex system of beliefs? To accentuate this perspective, the Nok Culture deserves further investigation before the remaining evidence is irreversibly lost by looting which still takes place at many sites in Nigeria every day.\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 251-3) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ES4TRU7R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ES4TRU7R </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 656, "name": "ni_yoruba_classic", "long_name": "Classical Ife", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The preceding story indicates that different schools of diviners were competing for the minds and souls of the political class and populace of Ilé-Ifè (and possibly other areas) during the Classical period.\" §REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 134) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 660, "name": "ni_igodomingodo", "long_name": "Igodomingodo", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” §REF§ (Bondarenko and Roese 2001: 185-186) Bondarenko, Dmitri M. and Peter M. Roese, 2001. “Ancient Benin: Where did the First Monarchs Come from?”, Asian and African Studies, 10 (1), pp.185-198. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P4DQ36NB </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No information found in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 613, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Suspected unknown due to the antiquity of this quasi-polity, the nature of the data, and the fact that this aspect of the quasi-polity's culture is not mentioned in a recent and comprehensive series of articles on prehistoric West Burkina Faso by Stephen Dueppen." }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No information available in the literature consulted." }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 655, "name": "ni_proto_yoruba", "long_name": "Proto-Yoruba", "start_year": 301, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"During this period, the proto-Yorùbá began to split into several mutually intelligible dialects, but they retained the kernel of their sociopolitical traditions and continued to make use of the same cultural vocabulary.\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 46) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 623, "name": "zi_toutswe", "long_name": "Toutswe", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "This variable is difficult to code with confidence due to the paucity of the data available, but the following quotes suggest that, in this region in the precolonial era, there was a certain cultural flexibility in matters of identity and a general similarity of belief, which in turn suggests relatively low rates of religious fragmentation. \"Precolonial Africa was characterized by a large degree of pluralism and flexibility in terms of articulation of belonging. In line with this, the precolonial Kalanga also consisted of more fluid units that assimilated outsiders into the community as long as they accepted their customs, and the sense of obligation and solidarity went beyond that of the nuclear family.\"§REF§(Dube 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3FHTN4Q3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3FHTN4Q3 </b></a>§REF§ \"[T]here existed a large region of broadly similar languages, beliefs and institutions, larger than present-day Zimbabwe and stretching into areas now defined as South Africa, Zambia and Mozambique. Within that zone, there was a constant movement of people, goods, ideas, and a multitude of different self-identifications.\"§REF§(Raftopoulos and Mlambo 2008: 2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U8C75XJD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U8C75XJD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 616, "name": "si_pre_sape", "long_name": "Pre-Sape Sierra Leone", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "No information found in the literature. Indeed, what little literature we have been able to access provides little information on this period, not just with regards to religious matters. Some of the region's modern-day ethnic groups first arrived in the region or already inhabited it in the period under consideration, but it is unclear to us whether any aspect of their traditional beliefs and practices was also present at this time." }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 664, "name": "ni_proto_yoruboid", "long_name": "Proto-Yoruboid", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Suspected unknown due to the antiquity of this quasi-polity, the nature of the data, and the fact that this aspect of the quasi-polity's culture is not mentioned in a recent and comprehensive cultural history of the Yoruba, Ogundiran 2020. §REF§(Ogundiran 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 685, "name": "ug_buganda_k_1", "long_name": "Buganda I", "start_year": 1408, "end_year": 1716 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"[A] singular Bugandan religion was common to all Baganda, with a variety of deities called lubaale to whom temples and priests were devoted. While lubaale were considered former clan members, they could be and were worshipped by all Baganda, since “it was the question of locality, not of kinship, that decided to which of the prophets an inquirer should go.” Indeed, according to Mair this is one of several “peculiarities” that “distinguish it from the religious ceremonies of Bantu Africa” along with the lack of any regular obligatory ceremonies.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 625, "name": "zi_torwa_rozvi", "long_name": "Torwa-Rozvi", "start_year": 1494, "end_year": 1850 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "This variable is difficult to code with confidence due to the paucity of the data available, but the following quotes suggest that, in this region in the precolonial era, there was a certain cultural flexibility in matters of identity and a general similarity of belief, which in turn suggests relatively low rates of religious fragmentation. \"Precolonial Africa was characterized by a large degree of pluralism and flexibility in terms of articulation of belonging. In line with this, the precolonial Kalanga also consisted of more fluid units that assimilated outsiders into the community as long as they accepted their customs, and the sense of obligation and solidarity went beyond that of the nuclear family.\"§REF§(Dube 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3FHTN4Q3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3FHTN4Q3 </b></a>§REF§ \"[T]here existed a large region of broadly similar languages, beliefs and institutions, larger than present-day Zimbabwe and stretching into areas now defined as South Africa, Zambia and Mozambique. Within that zone, there was a constant movement of people, goods, ideas, and a multitude of different self-identifications.\"§REF§(Raftopoulos and Mlambo 2008: 2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U8C75XJD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U8C75XJD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“While in the monkhood between 1824 and 1851, Mongkut formed the Thammayut sect, and partly to cleanse Buddhism of the elements that attracted farang criticism, partly as an extension of Rama I’s ambition to create a Buddhism with more moral authority to order society. The new sect adopted a stricter code of conduct based on a Mon text, rejected the use of jataka tales for teaching and preaching, down-played the significance of texts based on traditional cosmology (especially the Traiphum), and avoided practices adopted from Brahmanism or spirit worship. The sect was small – 150 monks when Mongkut ascended the throne in 1851 – but influential owing to its royal origins.” §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2014: 40-41) Baker, C. J., Phongpaichit, P., Baker, C. (2014). A History of Thailand. Costa Rica: Cambridge University Press. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9NZXSU7Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9NZXSU7Z </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 359, "name": "ye_ziyad_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Ziyadid Dynasty", "start_year": 822, "end_year": 1037 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“No contemporary account survives, so that Ziyadid Yemen remains poorly understood, a ‘missing piece of the puzzle’ as regards the early Islamic Red Sea.” §REF§ (Power 2012, 216) Power, Timothy. 2012. The Red Sea from Byzantium to the Caliphate: AD 500-1000. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4KCRGQVX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4KCRGQVX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“THE QOTAKALLI PERIOD in the Cuzco region covers an era between the rise of the first chiefly societies and invasion of the area by the Wari Empire. Unfortunately, this is one of the least-understood time periods of the Cuzco region.” §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Bauer, Brian S. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NFKCCC8X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NFKCCC8X </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“THE QOTAKALLI PERIOD in the Cuzco region covers an era between the rise of the first chiefly societies and invasion of the area by the Wari Empire. Unfortunately, this is one of the least-understood time periods of the Cuzco region.” §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Bauer, Brian S. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NFKCCC8X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NFKCCC8X </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Despite the shift in the Sultans’ attitudes towards them, Catholic missionaries continued to operate under French protection and increasingly local clergy, trained in Rome, were able to preserve and propagate the Catholic mission. The result was schism. By the middle of the eighteenth century there existed a parallel Catholic hierarchy to that of the traditional clergy in every Easternrite church. The rituals changed little, but the new ‘Unite’ churches pledged their fealty to the pope in Rome and gained a connection to Catholic Europe. In this way, the Melkite Catholic Church split from the Greek Orthodox in the see of Antioch, the Chaldean Catholic Church grew out of the Nestorians, the Armenian Catholic Church from the Apostolic Church and so on.” §REF§ (Masters 2008, 277) Master, Bruce. 2008. ‘Christians in a Changing World.’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S5T73JIE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: S5T73JIE </b></a> §REF§“Ottoman madrasas no doubt propagated certain elements of Sunni and Hanafi Islam, with the support of some of the Sufi orders; however, many other orders spread antinomian or Alid ideas, therefore, a coherent vision of Islam as Ottoman subjects themselves experience is difficult to discern and resembles more a colourful diversity. Intermittent heresy trials in the sixteenth century, as well as the periodic state-sponsored efforts to suppress these groups from the sixteenth century onwards, clearly demonstrates this breach between ‘desired’ and ‘actual’ Sunnism.” §REF§ (Erginbas 2019, 2-3) Erginbas, Vefa. 2019 ‘Introduction’. In Ottoman Sunnism: New Perspectives. Edited by Vefa Erginbas. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T62EZPE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T62EZPE8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“One of the main obstacles to reach interpretations of a higher level in Anatolia is the general lack of defined cultural units with specified spatial and chronological extension. Most regions are represented only by a few sites or even a single excavation during any particular period, making it very difficult to arrive at generalizing statements.” §REF§ (Schoop 2011, 165-166) Schoop, Ulf-Dietrich. 2011. ‘The Chalcolithic on the Plateau.’ In The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QS8HNST2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QS8HNST2 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The Seljuk attitude towards Ismailism, often designated as a heresy (ilhad), was more complex. At the time of the Basasiri episode, Ismailism was linked to a foreign power, the Fatimids, but from the late eleventh century Ismailis in the Seljuk lands (both Syria and Iran) followed the new, break-away Nizari variant of the faith propagated by Hasan-I Sabbah and Ibn ‘Attash. The Seljuks in response seem to have changed their attitude. The Chief Ismaili da’i, ‘Abd al-Malik. b. ‘Attash, had been forced to repudiate the faith after being threatened by Tughril with execution, but under Malikshat the da’wa was able to attract an ever greater number of adherents.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 265) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Theology in Constantinople was subservient to the emperor, and to the politically inspired doctrines of monenergism, monothelitism and, in the next century, iconoclasm. Resis- tance to all of these – a resistance that was finally recognised as ‘orthodoxy’ – came from the periphery, and in the long term especially from the monks of Palestine, who had long been known for their commitment to Chalcedo- nian orthodoxy.” §REF§ (Louth 2010, 242) Louth, Andrew. 2010. ‘Byzantium Transforming (600-700)’ In The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500-1492. Edited by Jonathan Shepard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P92RUTWI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P92RUTWI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The following quote suggests that religious fragmentation occured after the advent of Christianity in the colonial period: 'The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the \"spirits of the dead\" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult. The Orokaiva have been swept recently by a series of new cults, indicative of their religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. Religious training is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church, although mission influence has not totally eradicated traditional beliefs, producing an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.' Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva (2004) §REF§ Latham, Christopher and John Beierle. 2004. ‘Culture Summary: Orokaiva’. In: eHRAF World Cultures. Online: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V2AK2FR7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V2AK2FR7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 100, "name": "us_proto_haudenosaunee", "long_name": "Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1565 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Based on the sources consulted, it seems that the earliest significant religious minorities emerged among the Iroquois in the 1640s, and Jesuit missionaries only began sustained conversion work in the late 1660s. However, given the traditional custom of \"adopting\" war captives from other tribes, and given that 17th-century Christian captives were allowed to continue performing Christian rituals, it might be reasonable to infer that captives in this era were also allowed to continue following their own native beliefs alongside those of their captors, and that the mixing of the different belief systems may have led to some form of religious fragmentation. Then again, given the significant timespans in question, it may be unwise to infer such a degree of continuity. Moreover, it is possible that differences in religious beliefs and practices may not have been a significant distinction in this era, compared to other aspects of identity. \"Sustained work among Iroquois began late in the day; a quarter century of false starts and brief attempts intervened between a Jesuit's first appearance - Father Isaac Jogues' captivity among Mohawks in 1642 - and the dispatch of French missionaries to each of the Five Nations under peace agreements of 1665-1667. [...] During the \"Beaver Wars\" of the 1640s through the 1660s, disease ravaged families bolstered the Five Nations through the wholesale adoption of war captives. Many adoptees had encountered missionaries before and had developed strong opinions - pro or con - that, to the extent their perilous position allowed, they readily shared with their hosts. [...] Throughout Iroquoia, clusters of Christian captives retained their faith and, despite the disapproval of adoptive relatives, met regularly for prayers. \"§REF§(Richter 1985: 2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPVINEVK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPVINEVK </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The following quotation explains that a conference was held in 1961 between the traditional religious leaders of various Iban groups. The takeaway was that remarkable similarity in religious practice existed between different Iban groups despite being separated by geographical distance for significant periods of time. This implies the absence of fragmentation; however, this evidence is from significantly after the period in question and it may be inappropriate to infer. “Some differences certainly exist, but those who know the Iban well are constantly impressed by the homogenous quality of their culture. Knowing that the social order and customary law are rooted in Iban religion, A. J. N. Richards, at that time Resident of the Second Division, decided in 1961 to convene in Simanggang a meeting of traditional religious leaders to discuss the standardization of Second Division (Iban) law, the formal core of the Iban way of life… After some initial hesitation, the meeting was remarkable not only for the light thrown on Iban religion but for the constructive, relaxed atmosphere which prevailed, and the direction which enabled the speakers to make their individual contributions. It was not intended to produce a canon of Iban belief, but in discussing the religious assumptions which underlie customary law, the delegates spoke at some length on most aspects of their religion and one particularly interesting conclusion was the degree of uniformity which this discussion revealed. Of course there were local variations, differing details of expression and emphasis, but, considering the distances involved and the difficulty in communication, the tradition remained remarkably uniform.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 56) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“In later Han times (2nd century A.D.), a significant religious movement developed in Szechuan under Chang Lin (also called Chang Tao-lin). Allegedly, Lao-tzu appeared to this hermit in a mountain cave in A.D. 142 complaining of the world's lack of respect for the true and the correct, and of people's honouring pernicious demons. In this alleged revelation, Chang was made the Heavenly Master, with the order to abolish the things of the demons, and to install true orthodoxy. He would become founder and first pope of a religion that parallels in many ways Catholic Christianity.” §REF§ (Ching, Julia 1993, 103) Ching, Julia. 1993. Chinese Religions. London: Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPXC7H29\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPXC7H29 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"Very little is known about the religious beliefs of the Yangshao people.\" §REF§(Lee in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 336)§REF§" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_fragmentation", "coded_value": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "‘‘‘ Unclear, but worth noting the presence of possible evidence for the standardization of ritual, suggesting perhaps the opposite trend to fragmentation. \"The presence of several altar sites, and a whole array of ritual jade and pottery objects of comparable shapes over a good part of the Chinese territory, appear to indicate that by the Longshan era the standardization of ritual and religious practices and the formation of iconographic formulae was already well in place (Wu Hung 1990). This would include the finds of recognizable ritual objects, such as hi discs and cong tubes, beyond the Liangzhu nuclear culture to an area that ranges north-south from Inner Mongolia to Guangdong, and east-west from Shandong to Gansu (Huang 1992:78-80, figs. 9-10), and the existence of an established set of ritual vessel types (li pitchers, dou cups, ding tripods, etc.), which were to have a paramount religious importance throughout the early dynastic period.\" §REF§(Demattè 1999, 141) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G6J58ENC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G6J58ENC </b></a>§REF§" } ] }