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"comment": "Inferring absence based on the absent code for the most recent period that has left written evidence of religious beliefs (Late Shang, c. 1250-1046 BCE). That absent code is based on the following quote: “Nowhere in the texts do we see clear indication that the Powers are beneficent …. The Shang rulers seek advance approval for their actions - sometimes, it seems, obsessively - but there is no suggestion that the basis for approval will be anything other than the arbitrary inclinations of the Powers”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HRDEVGKT\">[Eno_Lagerway_Kalinowski 2009, p. 100]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
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"tag": "TRS",
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"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with [moralistic supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
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"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The following extract, which refers to Tengrism, suggests that correct ritual behaviour may have been more significant in Tengrism than interpersonal morality. “Personal psychic power is called hii (wind), or hiimori, (windhorse). This force is housed within the chest and will vary in size according to how one uses and accumulates it. Very strong windhorse allows one to think clearly and analytically and see through deception. Windhorse is the power which allows shamans and other powerful people accomplish what needs to be done simply and easily. Use of one’s personal power toward harmful ends or to upset the balance of the universe depletes windhorse, which is one reason why truly evil people tend toward self-destructive behavior over time. Windhorse can be increased by actions to restore balance in the universe and through religious practice. Simple everyday actions foster windhorse, such as offering drink to heaven, earth, and the ancestors, prayer, and veneration of the heaven, earth, and the spirits of the ancestors and nature. Sacred smoke from incense, sage, thyme, juniper, and other herbs can raise windhorse when done during shamanist worship. Sacrifices are another way to raise windhorse if done for specific purposes or at the traditional festivals.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
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"long_name": "Early Mongols",
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"end_year": 1206
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The following extract, which refers to Tengrism, suggests that correct ritual behaviour may have been more significant in Tengrism than interpersonal morality. “Personal psychic power is called hii (wind), or hiimori, (windhorse). This force is housed within the chest and will vary in size according to how one uses and accumulates it. Very strong windhorse allows one to think clearly and analytically and see through deception. Windhorse is the power which allows shamans and other powerful people accomplish what needs to be done simply and easily. Use of one’s personal power toward harmful ends or to upset the balance of the universe depletes windhorse, which is one reason why truly evil people tend toward self-destructive behavior over time. Windhorse can be increased by actions to restore balance in the universe and through religious practice. Simple everyday actions foster windhorse, such as offering drink to heaven, earth, and the ancestors, prayer, and veneration of the heaven, earth, and the spirits of the ancestors and nature. Sacred smoke from incense, sage, thyme, juniper, and other herbs can raise windhorse when done during shamanist worship. Sacrifices are another way to raise windhorse if done for specific purposes or at the traditional festivals.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
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"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "\"Dharma, as an epicenter of Hindu systems of MSP, is associated with two key mechanisms through which retribution or reward is experienced by a human for actions toward another human. The first mechanism is through the action of a divine or supernatural being or deity, characterized as Deva or Devi, or Parama Brahman, the Supreme Spirit or God. The second mechanism is through karma, a nonagentic, impersonal force that works automatically based on a logic of puṇya (merit) versus pāpa (demerit). The totality of one’s puṇya is weighed against the pāpa that one accrues in one’s lifetime as the phala (fruits) of one’s karma, understood as action. Transgressing from one’s dharma will incur undesirable consequences (Flood 1996; Krishan 1988, 1997).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EBDJ2WB5\">[Das_et_al 2024, p. 50]</a> “In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with [moralizing supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
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"name": "id_majapahit_k",
"long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom",
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"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "\"Dharma, as an epicenter of Hindu systems of MSP, is associated with two key mechanisms through which retribution or reward is experienced by a human for actions toward another human. The first mechanism is through the action of a divine or supernatural being or deity, characterized as Deva or Devi, or Parama Brahman, the Supreme Spirit or God. The second mechanism is through karma, a nonagentic, impersonal force that works automatically based on a logic of puṇya (merit) versus pāpa (demerit). The totality of one’s puṇya is weighed against the pāpa that one accrues in one’s lifetime as the phala (fruits) of one’s karma, understood as action. Transgressing from one’s dharma will incur undesirable consequences (Flood 1996; Krishan 1988, 1997).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EBDJ2WB5\">[Das_et_al 2024, p. 50]</a> “In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with [moralizing supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
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},
"year_from": null,
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"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The following extract, which refers to Tengrism, suggests that correct ritual behaviour may have been more significant in Tengrism than interpersonal morality. “Personal psychic power is called hii (wind), or hiimori, (windhorse). This force is housed within the chest and will vary in size according to how one uses and accumulates it. Very strong windhorse allows one to think clearly and analytically and see through deception. Windhorse is the power which allows shamans and other powerful people accomplish what needs to be done simply and easily. Use of one’s personal power toward harmful ends or to upset the balance of the universe depletes windhorse, which is one reason why truly evil people tend toward self-destructive behavior over time. Windhorse can be increased by actions to restore balance in the universe and through religious practice. Simple everyday actions foster windhorse, such as offering drink to heaven, earth, and the ancestors, prayer, and veneration of the heaven, earth, and the spirits of the ancestors and nature. Sacred smoke from incense, sage, thyme, juniper, and other herbs can raise windhorse when done during shamanist worship. Sacrifices are another way to raise windhorse if done for specific purposes or at the traditional festivals.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
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"name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states",
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},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "\"The duty of each individual is to side with the good so that the evil will be ultimately vanquished and the good will triumph to reign supreme.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TSXN78UE\">[Nigosian 1993, p. 91]</a>",
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{
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},
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"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
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"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
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},
{
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"name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2",
"long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate",
"start_year": 682,
"end_year": 744
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The following extract, which refers to Tengrism, suggests that correct ritual behaviour may have been more significant in Tengrism than interpersonal morality. “Personal psychic power is called hii (wind), or hiimori, (windhorse). This force is housed within the chest and will vary in size according to how one uses and accumulates it. Very strong windhorse allows one to think clearly and analytically and see through deception. Windhorse is the power which allows shamans and other powerful people accomplish what needs to be done simply and easily. Use of one’s personal power toward harmful ends or to upset the balance of the universe depletes windhorse, which is one reason why truly evil people tend toward self-destructive behavior over time. Windhorse can be increased by actions to restore balance in the universe and through religious practice. Simple everyday actions foster windhorse, such as offering drink to heaven, earth, and the ancestors, prayer, and veneration of the heaven, earth, and the spirits of the ancestors and nature. Sacred smoke from incense, sage, thyme, juniper, and other herbs can raise windhorse when done during shamanist worship. Sacrifices are another way to raise windhorse if done for specific purposes or at the traditional festivals.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 426,
"polity": {
"id": 283,
"name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1",
"long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate",
"start_year": 583,
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},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The following extract, which refers to Tengrism, suggests that correct ritual behaviour may have been more significant in Tengrism than interpersonal morality. “Personal psychic power is called hii (wind), or hiimori, (windhorse). This force is housed within the chest and will vary in size according to how one uses and accumulates it. Very strong windhorse allows one to think clearly and analytically and see through deception. Windhorse is the power which allows shamans and other powerful people accomplish what needs to be done simply and easily. Use of one’s personal power toward harmful ends or to upset the balance of the universe depletes windhorse, which is one reason why truly evil people tend toward self-destructive behavior over time. Windhorse can be increased by actions to restore balance in the universe and through religious practice. Simple everyday actions foster windhorse, such as offering drink to heaven, earth, and the ancestors, prayer, and veneration of the heaven, earth, and the spirits of the ancestors and nature. Sacred smoke from incense, sage, thyme, juniper, and other herbs can raise windhorse when done during shamanist worship. Sacrifices are another way to raise windhorse if done for specific purposes or at the traditional festivals.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
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"name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn",
"long_name": "Eastern Han Empire",
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"end_year": 220
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "\"The Mandate of Heaven was officially adopted as the state ideology during the Han period. It was explicitly invoked by Wang Mang and endorsed by the first Eastern Han emperor (first century CE). Nevertheless, Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
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"name": "cn_sui_dyn",
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},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with MSP [i.e. moralizing supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
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},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with MSP [i.e. moralizing supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 431,
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"name": "cn_later_great_jin",
"long_name": "Jin Dynasty",
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},
"year_from": null,
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"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with MSP [i.e. moralizing supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
"description": ""
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{
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},
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"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with MSP [i.e. moralizing supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
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"name": "cn_tang_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Tang Dynasty I",
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},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In the medieval schools, the system was expanded and the Daoist otherworld became an elaborate construction of manifold offices. The Siji mingke (Illustrious Regulations of the Four Ultimates), a fifth-century Highest Clarity text, describes the central offices in Heaven: 1. The office to the left presides over transgressions of a yang nature, such as killing, theft of celestial treasures, unwarranted spread of sacred texts, cursing and swearing. 2. The office to the right presides over transgressions of a yin nature, including harboring schemes in one’s heart, disobedience, planning harm to others, and never remembering the Dao. 3. The office in the center presides over more essential shortcomings, such as doubts and duplicity, lack of reverence and faith in heavenly perfection, desecration of heavenly treasures, and thoughts of removing the scriptures of the Dao or of defiling perfected writings.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG935ZIK\">[Kohn 2009, p. 100]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 434,
"polity": {
"id": 264,
"name": "cn_tang_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Tang Dynasty II",
"start_year": 763,
"end_year": 907
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In the medieval schools, the system was expanded and the Daoist otherworld became an elaborate construction of manifold offices. The Siji mingke (Illustrious Regulations of the Four Ultimates), a fifth-century Highest Clarity text, describes the central offices in Heaven: 1. The office to the left presides over transgressions of a yang nature, such as killing, theft of celestial treasures, unwarranted spread of sacred texts, cursing and swearing. 2. The office to the right presides over transgressions of a yin nature, including harboring schemes in one’s heart, disobedience, planning harm to others, and never remembering the Dao. 3. The office in the center presides over more essential shortcomings, such as doubts and duplicity, lack of reverence and faith in heavenly perfection, desecration of heavenly treasures, and thoughts of removing the scriptures of the Dao or of defiling perfected writings.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG935ZIK\">[Kohn 2009, p. 100]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 439,
"polity": {
"id": 251,
"name": "cn_western_han_dyn",
"long_name": "Western Han Empire",
"start_year": -202,
"end_year": 9
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 440,
"polity": {
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 441,
"polity": {
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 442,
"polity": {
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 444,
"polity": {
"id": 425,
"name": "cn_northern_song_dyn",
"long_name": "Northern Song",
"start_year": 960,
"end_year": 1127
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“In the medieval schools, the system was expanded and the Daoist otherworld became an elaborate construction of manifold offices. The Siji mingke (Illustrious Regulations of the Four Ultimates), a fifth-century Highest Clarity text, describes the central offices in Heaven: 1. The office to the left presides over transgressions of a yang nature, such as killing, theft of celestial treasures, unwarranted spread of sacred texts, cursing and swearing. 2. The office to the right presides over transgressions of a yin nature, including harboring schemes in one’s heart, disobedience, planning harm to others, and never remembering the Dao. 3. The office in the center presides over more essential shortcomings, such as doubts and duplicity, lack of reverence and faith in heavenly perfection, desecration of heavenly treasures, and thoughts of removing the scriptures of the Dao or of defiling perfected writings.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG935ZIK\">[Kohn 2009, p. 100]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 445,
"polity": {
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 446,
"polity": {
"id": 889,
"name": "cn_qi_spring_autumn",
"long_name": "Qi - Spring and Autumn",
"start_year": -770,
"end_year": -489
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 447,
"polity": {
"id": 890,
"name": "cn_qi_warring_states",
"long_name": "Qi - Warring States",
"start_year": -488,
"end_year": -222
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 448,
"polity": {
"id": 423,
"name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states",
"long_name": "Eastern Zhou",
"start_year": -475,
"end_year": -256
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 449,
"polity": {
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 450,
"polity": {
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 451,
"polity": {
"id": 464,
"name": "uz_koktepe_1",
"long_name": "Koktepe I",
"start_year": -1400,
"end_year": -1000
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 452,
"polity": {
"id": 463,
"name": "kz_andronovo",
"long_name": "Andronovo",
"start_year": -1800,
"end_year": -1200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 453,
"polity": {
"id": 466,
"name": "uz_koktepe_2",
"long_name": "Koktepe II",
"start_year": -750,
"end_year": -550
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 454,
"polity": {
"id": 465,
"name": "uz_khwarasm_1",
"long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm",
"start_year": -1000,
"end_year": -521
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 456,
"polity": {
"id": 129,
"name": "af_hephthalite_emp",
"long_name": "Hephthalite Empire",
"start_year": 408,
"end_year": 561
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "unknown",
"comment": "“We have no evidence of the specific content of these religious beliefs but it is quite possible that they belonged to the Iranian (or Indo-Iranian) group.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7MTFU42T\">[Litvinsky_et_al 1996, p. 147]</a> However, sources on Indo-Iranian beliefes tend to privilege much earlier time periods.",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 457,
"polity": {
"id": 354,
"name": "ye_himyar_2",
"long_name": "Himyar II",
"start_year": 378,
"end_year": 525
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The majority of inscriptions suggest that the gods were thought to punish people because of failure to fulfil ritual obligations with respect to a deity, or because of their infringement of the code of ritual purity; only a single known inscription (MB 2002 I-28) describes an instance of divine punishment that may be interpreted as moralistic (selling food to neighbouring communities during bad harvest years, and selling enslaved people from one’s own community to other communities). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F54SC2DB\">[Multhoff_et_al 2008]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3ESBXZ\">[Maraqten 2006]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 458,
"polity": {
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“In summary, during the Principate, […] punishing transgressions and rewarding virtue continued to be only a secondary concern of supernatural agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, pp. 52-53]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 459,
"polity": {
"id": 71,
"name": "tr_roman_dominate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate",
"start_year": 285,
"end_year": 394
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“As a general rule, […] it is fair to say that the main emphasis of Roman religion was on respectful behavior toward the gods, including the performance of rites and sacrifices, rather than adherence to a code of interpersonal norms.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, p. 54]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 460,
"polity": {
"id": 184,
"name": "it_roman_rep_3",
"long_name": "Late Roman Republic",
"start_year": -133,
"end_year": -31
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“As a general rule, […] it is fair to say that the main emphasis of Roman religion was on respectful behavior toward the gods, including the performance of rites and sacrifices, rather than adherence to a code of interpersonal norms.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, p. 54]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 461,
"polity": {
"id": 183,
"name": "it_roman_rep_2",
"long_name": "Middle Roman Republic",
"start_year": -264,
"end_year": -133
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“As a general rule, […] it is fair to say that the main emphasis of Roman religion was on respectful behavior toward the gods, including the performance of rites and sacrifices, rather than adherence to a code of interpersonal norms.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, p. 54]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 462,
"polity": {
"id": 182,
"name": "it_roman_rep_1",
"long_name": "Early Roman Republic",
"start_year": -509,
"end_year": -264
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“As a general rule, […] it is fair to say that the main emphasis of Roman religion was on respectful behavior toward the gods, including the performance of rites and sacrifices, rather than adherence to a code of interpersonal norms.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, p. 54]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 463,
"polity": {
"id": 109,
"name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1",
"long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I",
"start_year": -305,
"end_year": -217
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“The Greek concept of dikē (δίκη, justice) overlaps with ma’at but differs from it in key ways. Both were concerned with ensuring proper conduct and maintaining social order, and applied equally to rulers and ruled. However, although Greek gods were sometimes depicted as caring about dikē, they had more limited domains of moral concern than some Egyptian deities; they generally had to be persuaded or “harnessed” through oaths and offerings to enforce human morality (Larson 2023).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZQ2347BZ\">[Cioni_et_al 2025, p. 82]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 464,
"polity": {
"id": 207,
"name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2",
"long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II",
"start_year": -217,
"end_year": -30
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“The Greek concept of dikē (δίκη, justice) overlaps with ma’at but differs from it in key ways. Both were concerned with ensuring proper conduct and maintaining social order, and applied equally to rulers and ruled. However, although Greek gods were sometimes depicted as caring about dikē, they had more limited domains of moral concern than some Egyptian deities; they generally had to be persuaded or “harnessed” through oaths and offerings to enforce human morality (Larson 2023).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZQ2347BZ\">[Cioni_et_al 2025, p. 82]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 465,
"polity": {
"id": 108,
"name": "ir_seleucid_emp",
"long_name": "Seleucid Empire",
"start_year": -312,
"end_year": -63
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Hellenistic-era texts such as the \"Confession Inscriptions\" of Lydia and Phrygia suggest that the gods mostly punished ritual transgressions. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NWCQSASD\">[Versnel_Cohen_Müller-Luckner 2009]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JM8SCEDQ\">[Petzl 1994]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 467,
"polity": {
"id": 126,
"name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
"long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
"start_year": -180,
"end_year": -10
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“The Greek concept of dikē (δίκη, justice) overlaps with ma’at but differs from it in key ways. Both were concerned with ensuring proper conduct and maintaining social order, and applied equally to rulers and ruled. However, although Greek gods were sometimes depicted as caring about dikē, they had [...] limited domains of moral concern [...]; they generally had to be persuaded or “harnessed” through oaths and offerings to enforce human morality (Larson 2023).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZQ2347BZ\">[Cioni_et_al 2025, p. 82]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 468,
"polity": {
"id": 169,
"name": "tr_lysimachus_k",
"long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom",
"start_year": -323,
"end_year": -281
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“The Greek concept of dikē (δίκη, justice) overlaps with ma’at but differs from it in key ways. Both were concerned with ensuring proper conduct and maintaining social order, and applied equally to rulers and ruled. However, although Greek gods were sometimes depicted as caring about dikē, they had [...] limited domains of moral concern [...]; they generally had to be persuaded or “harnessed” through oaths and offerings to enforce human morality (Larson 2023).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZQ2347BZ\">[Cioni_et_al 2025, p. 82]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 469,
"polity": {
"id": 350,
"name": "af_greco_bactrian_k",
"long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom",
"start_year": -256,
"end_year": -125
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "The Greco-Bactrians came to incorporate multiple highly moralizing religions in the official ideology, including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QE37R7HS\">[Mairs_Eidinov_Kindt 2015]</a> For example: “In sum, pre-modern Buddhism was eminently concerned with [moralistic supernatural enforcement].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 118]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 470,
"polity": {
"id": 192,
"name": "it_papal_state_3",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
"start_year": 1527,
"end_year": 1648
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Jesus upheld the Ten Commandments (Mark 12: 19) and followed the prophets in stigmatizing social injustice, especially the failure to act justly and lovingly towards those in terrible need (Luke 16: 19–31). Jesus went so far, according to one tradition, as to make the Final Judgement depend simply on our practical concern for the hungry, the sick, prisoners, homeless persons, and others in great need (Matt. 25: 31–46). Jesus broke new ground by linking together the command to love God and love our neighbour (Mark 12: 28–34). This was to turn all sins into failures to follow the love-command.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WVP9QISX\">[O'Collins_Farrugia 2015, p. 205]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 471,
"polity": {
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_supernatural_concern_is_primary",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Jesus upheld the Ten Commandments (Mark 12: 19) and followed the prophets in stigmatizing social injustice, especially the failure to act justly and lovingly towards those in terrible need (Luke 16: 19–31). Jesus went so far, according to one tradition, as to make the Final Judgement depend simply on our practical concern for the hungry, the sick, prisoners, homeless persons, and others in great need (Matt. 25: 31–46). Jesus broke new ground by linking together the command to love God and love our neighbour (Mark 12: 28–34). This was to turn all sins into failures to follow the love-command.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WVP9QISX\">[O'Collins_Farrugia 2015, p. 205]</a>",
"description": ""
}
]
}