Polity Scale Of Supracultural Interaction List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Scales of Supracultural Interaction.
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{ "count": 132, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-scale-of-supracultural-interactions/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4500000, "scale_to": 5000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. In this period the figure should not include Parthian held territory. \"Very soon, however, Andragoras was toppled by the Parthian chieftain Arsaces, who established the Parthian Empire in Iran, which undermined Bactrian control of overland trade along the Silk Road and effectively cut off Greeks in Bactria from the Greek world in the Mediterranean.\"§REF§(www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh02-06enl.html)§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 7500000, "scale_to": 8000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. \"The Byzantine writer Procopius in the early sixth century refers to them as white-bodied Huns ... However, there is no material or linguistic evidence that they were related to the Huns or Xiongnu at all, and the name has generally been interpreted as a mistaken identity given to a nomadic people whose culture resembled that of the Huns.\"§REF§(West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ All the nomadic kingdoms that flourished in Bactria between the middle of the fourth century CE and the middle of the sixth century CE seem to have originated in a massive migration in the second half of the fourth century between 350 CE and 370 CE. §REF§De la Vaissière, É. \"Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites.\" Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): pp 119-132.§REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 9000000, "scale_to": 9000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. Total area of Eurasian nomadic, Persian and Indian cultural regions would be on the scale of 9 million km2 (core regions of these areas)." }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Greco-Persian area corresponding to Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Transoxania." }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Greco-Persian area corresponding to Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Transoxania." }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": " km." }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. Trading. Warfare." }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11839074, "scale_to": 11839074, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The Hmong inhabited several Chinese provinces: 'The Ch'uan Miao are an ethnic group living on the borders of Szechwan, Kweichow, and Yunnan Provinces, western China. The country is very mountainous with numerous peaks rising 3,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level. There are many streams, forests, waterfalls, perpendicular or overhanging cliffs, natural caves and natural bridges, and deepholes or pits where the water disappears into the bowels of the earth. While the roads between the Chinese towns and villages are generally paved with stones, most of the roads are narrow footpaths up and down the steep mountainsides or through fields and forests.' §REF§Graham, David Crockett 1954. “Songs And Stories Of The Ch’Uan Miao\", 1§REF§ This factor combines with their cultural heterogeneity to make the identification of a scale of supracultural interaction more difficult: 'The various Miao groups are for the most part an unstratified agricultural people found in the uplands of several provinces of China and related to the Hmong of Southeast Asia. They are distinguished by language, dress, historical traditions, and cultural practice from neighboring ethnic groups and the dominant Han Chinese. They are not culturally homogeneous and the differences between local Miao cultures are often as great as between Miao and non-Miao neighbors. The term \"Miao\" is Chinese, and means \"weeds\" or \"sprouts.\" Chinese minority policies since the 1950s treat these diverse groups as a single nationality and associate them with the San Miao Kingdom of central China mentioned in histories of the Han dynasty (200 BC-AD 200). About half of China’s Miao are located in Guizhou Province. Another 34 percent are evenly divided between Yunnan Province and western Hunan Province. The remainder are mainly found in Sichuan and Guangxi, with a small number in Guangdong and Hainan. Some of the latter may have been resettled there during the Qing dynasty. The wide dispersion makes it difficult to generalize about ecological settings. Miao settlements are found anywhere from a few hundred meters above sea level to elevations of 1,400 meters or more. The largest number are uplands people, often living at elevations over 1,200 meters and located at some distance from urban centers or the lowlands and river valleys where the Han are concentrated. Often, these upland villages and hamlets are interspersed with those of other minorities such as Yao, Dong, Zhuang, Yi, Hui, and Bouyei.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ 'Miao is the official Chinese term for four distinct groups of people who are only distantly related through language or culture: the Hmu people of southeast Guizhou, the Qo Xiong people of west Hunan, the A-Hmao people of Yunnan, and the Hmong people of Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Yunnan (see China: People). [...] The Miao are related in language and some other cultural features to the Yao; among these peoples the two groups with the closest degree of relatedness are the Hmong (Miao) and the Iu Mien (Yao).' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ 'The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ Chinese authors tend to group them with other non-Chinese 'hill people' inhabiting several East and South East Asian countries: 'The migration of the Miao in recent times, due to the repeated disturbances in Kweichow, has reached eastward only to the west of the Yüan-chiang River, and northward to the south bank of the Yangtze River. Since further on in their two directions the terrain becomes less hilly and is more densely populated, there is no land for the Miao to move into. Even if there were land available, the damp, hot climate would be unsuitable for them to live in. The spread of the Miao southeastward was along the Nan Ling mountains 25 and stopped west of the Kwei-chiang River. Their movement westward met no obstacles because Yunnan, Tonkin, and Laos are all spacious and thinly populated, and now they have reached the east bank of the Nu-chiang. The emigration of the Miao is the latest among the movements of the peoples of the southwest. Yunnan and Indochina, although spacious and thinly populated as stated, have their arable areas in the mountains already occupied by the Lolo and other hill people. When the Miao arrived last they could not find extensive hilly country for living together as a tribe, and were forced to scatter, each to find his own way. Furthermore, being refugees from political turmoil, they lacked organization and definite destinations. In general, depending on hilly areas where they could settle down, they moved farther and farther, and thus their area became increasingly extensive.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 45§REF§ Hmong communities nevertheless interacted culturally with Chinese urban and agricultural populations: 'Several millions of these other peoples still live in the southern provinces of China. They are the Tai, the Lo-lo, and the Miao. Like the Chinese peasants of southern China, all of these people are Iron-Age agriculturalists, growing rice and other grains, keeping a few pigs and cattle, living in villages of a few hundred persons, and trading their surplus agricultural products and handicraft products in the market towns for cutting tools and other manufactured objects. The general economic adjustment to the environment is the same for all of these peoples. The differences consist chiefly of language and minor social usages. A difference of another order, however, sharply divides the dominant from the minor peoples - the hsien towns and the provincial cities are all chiefly inhabited and run by Chinese. Thus the Miao, Lo-lo, and Tai have no class of artisans' and traders, no urban populations; they are practically all peasants. Being dependent on the Chinese for their manufactured products, their material culture shows few visible differences from the Chinese. A western traveler might easily go through one of their villages while the women were away in the fields without knowing that he had seen non-Chinese people, for their faces look no different, and the costumes of the men are the same, while the houses, though perhaps poorer, do not deviate from ordinary rural Chinese architectural standards except for the layout of the village. Unless he were a very persistent and hardy traveler, however, the chances that he would reach such a village are remote, for these people inhabit refuge areas, and their homes are tucked away in the higher valleys and on the less fertile mountain slopes. Along the larger rivers, the main highroads of China, the traveler would see only Chinese.' §REF§Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, viia§REF§ Despite of these differences between Hmong groups and the Chinese majority, eHRAF groups Hmong societies with East Asia §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/regionsCultures.do#region=1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/regionsCultures.do#region=1</a>§REF§. According to Wikipedia, East Asia covers an area of 11,839,074 km2 §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11300000, "scale_to": 11300000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. Entirety of the Qing Empire" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 9000000, "scale_to": 9000000, "comment": null, "description": " km. Approximate scale of modern country of China (which covers roughly same area as ‘cultural zone’ of early imperial period)." }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3600000, "scale_to": 3600000, "comment": null, "description": " in squared kilometers<br>" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4000000, "scale_to": 5000000, "comment": null, "description": " km^2" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 2000000, "scale_to": 3000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 6000000, "scale_to": 9000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. Cultural diffusion, trade and warfare. Figure increases the maximum area of the Northern Wei state to include some of the Western Asian steppe (modern Mongolia). However, Northern Wei also, through Chinese majority population, interacted with the Chinese supra-cultural entity. This was most important toward the end of the era whilst the Nomadic supra-cultural interaction had preeminence at the beginning." }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 13100000, "scale_to": 13100000, "comment": null, "description": " km^2" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11300000, "scale_to": 11300000, "comment": null, "description": " km^2" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 1000000, "scale_to": 1000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared.<br>rough area of quasi-polity territory" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 5000000, "scale_to": 6000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 5000000, "scale_to": 6000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": " km^2" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": " km." }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 1000000, "scale_to": 1000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 17000000, "scale_to": 26000000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Rough area of Yuan Kingdom (17,000,000) or larger cultural area including all Mongolian Kingdoms (26,000,000+)." }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 5500000, "scale_to": 5500000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The names of the relevant Shuar groups are: 'Shuar (Shuara), Achuara (Atchuara, Achual), Aguaruna, Huambisa (Huambiza), Mayna' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAf Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ From the colonial period onwards, contact with Spanish and later Ecuadorian settler populations and traders needs to be factored in as well: 'The first reported white penetration of Jivaro territory was made in 1549 by a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Benavente. Later expeditions of colonists and soldiers soon followed. These newcomers traded with the Jivaro, made peace pacts with them, and soon began to exploit the gold found in alluvial or glacial deposits in the region. Eventually the Spaniards were able to obtain the co-operation of some of the Indians in working the gold deposits, but others remained hostile, killing many of the colonists and soldiers at every opportunity. Under the subjection of the Spaniards, the Jivaro were required to pay tribute in gold dust; a demand that increased yearly. Finally, in 1599, the Jivaro rebelled en masse, killing many thousands of Spaniards in the process and driving them from the region. After 1599, until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, Jivaro-European relations remained intermittent and mostly hostile. A few missionary and military expeditions entered the region from the Andean highlands, but these frequently ended in disaster and no permanent colonization ever resulted. One of the few \"friendly\" gestures reported for the tribe during this time occurred in 1767, when they gave a Spanish missionizing expedition \"gifts\", which included the skulls of Spaniards who had apparently been killed earlier by the Jivaro (Harner, 1953: 26). Thus it seems that the Jivaros are the only tribe known to have successfully revolted against the Spanish Empire and to have been able to thwart all subsequent attempts by the Spaniards to conquer them. They have withstood armies of gold seeking Inkas as well as Spaniards, and defied the bravado of the early conquistadors.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Frontier' groups acted as intermediaries between white settlers and 'interior' communities: 'Much of the trade of the Jivaro is between the \"interior\", relatively isolated groups (particularly the Achuara) and those \"frontier\" groups living in close proximity to Ecuadorian settlements where they have easy access to Western industrialized products. Through a series of neighborhood-to-neighborhood relays by native trading partners (AMIGRI ) these products were passed from the frontier Jivaro into the most remote parts of the tribal territory. Thus the interior Jivaro were supplied with steel cutting tools, firearms and ammunition without having to come into contact with the population of European ancestry. In exchange the frontier Jivaro, whose supply of local game was nearly exhausted, obtained hides, feathers and bird skins (used for ornaments), which were not readily available in their own territory.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ eHRAF groups the Shuar with other indigenous societies of the Amazon-Orinoco area §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=7\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=7</a>§REF§. Wikipedia gives the size of Amazonia as 5,500,000 square kilometres §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 5500000, "scale_to": 5500000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The names of the relevant groups are: 'Shuar (Shuara), Achuara (Atchuara, Achual), Aguaruna, Huambisa (Huambiza), Mayna' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAf Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ From the colonial period onwards, contact with Spanish and later Ecuadorian settler populations and traders needs to be factored in: 'The first reported white penetration of Jivaro territory was made in 1549 by a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Benavente. Later expeditions of colonists and soldiers soon followed. These newcomers traded with the Jivaro, made peace pacts with them, and soon began to exploit the gold found in alluvial or glacial deposits in the region. Eventually the Spaniards were able to obtain the co-operation of some of the Indians in working the gold deposits, but others remained hostile, killing many of the colonists and soldiers at every opportunity. Under the subjection of the Spaniards, the Jivaro were required to pay tribute in gold dust; a demand that increased yearly. Finally, in 1599, the Jivaro rebelled en masse, killing many thousands of Spaniards in the process and driving them from the region. After 1599, until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, Jivaro-European relations remained intermittent and mostly hostile. A few missionary and military expeditions entered the region from the Andean highlands, but these frequently ended in disaster and no permanent colonization ever resulted. One of the few \"friendly\" gestures reported for the tribe during this time occurred in 1767, when they gave a Spanish missionizing expedition \"gifts\", which included the skulls of Spaniards who had apparently been killed earlier by the Jivaro (Harner, 1953: 26). Thus it seems that the Jivaros are the only tribe known to have successfully revolted against the Spanish Empire and to have been able to thwart all subsequent attempts by the Spaniards to conquer them. They have withstood armies of gold seeking Inkas as well as Spaniards, and defied the bravado of the early conquistadors.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Much of the trade of the Jivaro is between the \"interior\", relatively isolated groups (particularly the Achuara) and those \"frontier\" groups living in close proximity to Ecuadorian settlements where they have easy access to Western industrialized products. Through a series of neighborhood-to-neighborhood relays by native trading partners (AMIGRI ) these products were passed from the frontier Jivaro into the most remote parts of the tribal territory. Thus the interior Jivaro were supplied with steel cutting tools, firearms and ammunition without having to come into contact with the population of European ancestry. In exchange the frontier Jivaro, whose supply of local game was nearly exhausted, obtained hides, feathers and bird skins (used for ornaments), which were not readily available in their own territory.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'By 1899, when the explorer Up de Graff ascended the Marañón, Barranca was considered the westernmost outpost of civilization on the river (1923:146). It had, nevertheless, withstood its own share of Indian attacks (Larrabure i Correa 1905/II:369; IX:357-367). Less than a year prior to Up de Graff's visit, Barranca was nearly devastated by a party of Huambisas who arrived from upriver ostensibly to trade, but then burned and looted most of the cauchero quarters (Up de Graff 1923:150).' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 91§REF§ 'By the turn of the century, when Ecuadorian missionaries had reunited some of the scattered refugees and reestablished their town on the Bobonaza River, there were at least a dozen caucheros exploiting rubber along western tributaries of the middle Pastaza such as the Huasaga (Fuentes 1908/I:194ff.), which was gradually being occupied by southward-moving Achuarä.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 89§REF§ The peculiarities of the colonial situation make an estimate of the scale of supracultural interaction more difficult. eHRAF groups the Shuar with other indigenous societies of the Amazon-Orinoco area §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=7\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=7</a>§REF§. Wikipedia gives the size of Amazonia as 5,500,000 square kilometres §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 250000, "scale_to": 500000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3500000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3500000, "scale_to": 4000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 250000, "scale_to": 500000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 350000, "scale_to": 350000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Area including Cyrenacia to west of the Nile Delta?" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared." }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 7400000, "scale_to": 7400000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The Chuuk islands form part of Micronesia: 'Micronesian culture, the beliefs and practices of the indigenous peoples of the ethnogeographic group of Pacific Islands known as Micronesia. The region of Micronesia lies between the Philippines and Hawaii and encompasses more than 2,000 islands, most of which are small and many of which are found in clusters. The region includes, from west to east, Palau (also known as Belau), Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands (which include Saipan), the Federated States of Micronesia (which include Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae), the Marshall Islands (which include Enewetak, Bikini, Rongelap, Kwajalein, and Majuro), Nauru, and Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands, and which includes Banaba, formerly Ocean Island). Located for the most part north of the Equator, Micronesia (from Greek mikros ‘small’ and nēsoi ‘islands’) includes the westernmost of the Pacific Islands.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 17000000, "scale_to": 17000000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.<br>" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 17000000, "scale_to": 17000000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.<br>" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 17000000, "scale_to": 17000000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.<br>" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 17000000, "scale_to": 17000000, "comment": null, "description": " km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.<br>" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 5112903, "scale_to": 5112903, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The different polities controlling the coastal area shared many cultural traits: 'Akan states, historical complex of gold-producing forest states in western Africa lying between the Comoé and Volta rivers (in an area roughly corresponding to the coastal lands of the modern republics of Togo, Ghana, and, in part, Côte d’Ivoire). Their economic, political, and social systems were transformed from the 16th to the 18th century by trade with Europeans on the coast. Of the northern Akan (or Brong) states the earliest (established c. 1450) was Bono; of the southern the most important were Denkyera, Akwamu, Fante (Fanti), and Asante.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Akan-states\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Akan-states</a>§REF§ 'The Asante, however, are only the most successful of a number of people in southern Ghana, with offshoots in the Ivory Coast, who are closely related and probably have a single origin. To the south are groups like the Fante, Akwamu and Akyem, speaking virtually identical tonal languages (sometimes called Twi, or Akan) of the Kwa family and with whom the Asante share many elements of culture. Among these groups, for example, there are traces of the great matrilineal clans [...] formerly recognised in Asante, the practice of naming children according to the day of birth (for example, Kofi, a Friday-born male; Abena, a Tuesday-born girl), and many closely similar religious ideas and rituals. Some of these groups also retain traditions of a move to the south from the open areas north of the forest.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 14§REF§ 'The common origin of the inhabitants of the Fanti districts, Asanti, and wherever the Akan language is spoken, has been already shown. The Customary Laws of the inhabitants of these places are in the main identical, and the national constitutions resemble each other in many points, although Asanti military organization had been developed in a greater degree.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa”, 2§REF§ Hayford comments on cultural and linguistic similiarities between the Ashanti and Fante peoples: 'They speak the same language with only a difference of accent, such difference being a refinement upon whichever form of speech was the original type. It is probable the Ashanti type is the original, since it is reasonable to suppose that the coast tribes were detached from the Ashantis, and not vice versa. There is no tradition showing that the Fantis were ever a distinct and separate people from the Ashantis. On the other hand, there is historical evidence that, at the dawn of European intercourse with the Gold Coast, the Ashanti Union fully recognised the existence and independence of the Fanti Union; and the current of immigration southwards from the north of tribes now dwelling between Ashanti proper and Fanti proper, all of whom have in common the same language with the Ashantis and Fantis, lends weight to this striking fact.' §REF§Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 24§REF§ The scale of supracultural interaction was amplified with the intensification of colonial penetration. The Columbian Exchange and contact with European traders, missionaries, and colonizers had lasting effects on culture change in Southern Ghana. 'The sole reason for the presence of Europeans in West Africa was, and is even now, principally trade, and for the purposes of trade only were forts constructed and settlements founded, and the power and jurisdiction of the local rulers subsequently undermined. The trade consisted mostly in barter or exchange, nor was the sale of slaves inconsiderable.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. \"Fanti National Constitution [...], 74§REF§ Given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as 'West Africans' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0</a>§REF§. Given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as 'West Africans' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0</a>§REF§. Wikipedia gives the size of West Africa as 5,112,903 km2 §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 5112903, "scale_to": 5112903, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. 'The Asante, however, are only the most successful of a number of people in southern Ghana, with offshoots in the Ivory Coast, who are closely related and probably have a single origin. To the south are groups like the Fante, Akwamu and Akyem, speaking virtually identical tonal languages (sometimes called Twi, or Akan) of the Kwa family and with whom the Asante share many elements of culture. Among these groups, for example, there are traces of the great matrilineal clans [...] formerly recognised in Asante, the practice of naming children according to the day of birth (for example, Kofi, a Friday-born male; Abena, a Tuesday-born girl), and many closely similar religious ideas and rituals. Some of these groups also retain traditions of a move to the south from the open areas north of the forest.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 14§REF§ Sarbah agrees with this view: 'The common origin of the inhabitants of the Fanti districts, Asanti, and wherever the Akan language is spoken, has been already shown. The Customary Laws of the inhabitants of these places are in the main identical, and the national constitutions resemble each other in many points, although Asanti military organization had been developed in a greater degree.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa”, 2§REF§ Hayford comments on cultural and linguistic similiarities between the Ashanti and Fante peoples: 'They speak the same language with only a difference of accent, such difference being a refinement upon whichever form of speech was the original type. It is probable the Ashanti type is the original, since it is reasonable to suppose that the coast tribes were detached from the Ashantis, and not vice versa. There is no tradition showing that the Fantis were ever a distinct and separate people from the Ashantis. On the other hand, there is historical evidence that, at the dawn of European intercourse with the Gold Coast, the Ashanti Union fully recognised the existence and independence of the Fanti Union; and the current of immigration southwards from the north of tribes now dwelling between Ashanti proper and Fanti proper, all of whom have in common the same language with the Ashantis and Fantis, lends weight to this striking fact.' §REF§Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 24§REF§ The scale of supracultural interaction was amplified with the intensification of colonial penetration: 'But in the mid-nineteenth century, and for the economic and political reasons outlined above, Asante society became much less confined, and much more permeable and accessible. I think that it would be missing the point to see this matter in the short term, and to interpret it from the viewpoint of - for example - formal conversion to Christianity or numbers of political or economic refugees. What, I think, is of paramount importance is that it was in this period that Asante became massively exposed to novel options, to different (and even contradictory) ways of looking at the world. These influences would take a long time to germinate and to bear fruit, but in retrospect we can see that this period represented a watershed in the understanding of values and beliefs. In cognitive terms - and we can see this prosopographically - the ‘generation’ of 1880 was further removed from that of 1830 than that ‘generation’ had been from any of its predecessors throughout Asante history (Wilks and McCaskie, 1973-79).' §REF§McCaskie, T. C. 1983. “Accumulation, Wealth And Belief In Asante History: I. To The Close Of The Ninteenth Century”, 36§REF§ The Columbian Exchange and contact with European traders, missionaries, and colonizers had lasting effects on culture change in Southern Ghana and were probably more important than Asanteman's interactions with fellow Akan peoples. But given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as 'West Africans' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0</a>§REF§. Given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as 'West Africans' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0</a>§REF§. Wikipedia gives the size of West Africa as 5,112,903 km2 §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 15000000, "scale_to": 20000000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. To the East, Christianity and Islam extended not only into the Middle East, but also as far as Central Asia, India and China. In Africa present as far south as Ethiopia." }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4500000, "scale_to": 4500000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The Iban form part of the non-Muslim population of Borneo: 'Dayak, also spelled Dyak, Dutch Dajak, the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the island of Borneo, most of whom traditionally lived along the banks of the larger rivers. Their languages all belong to the Indonesian branch of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language family. Dayak is a generic term that has no precise ethnic or tribal significance. Especially in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), it is applied to any of the (non-Muslim) indigenous peoples of the interior of the island (as opposed to the largely Malay population of the coastal areas). In Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah), it is used somewhat less extensively and is often understood locally to refer specifically to Iban (formerly called Sea Dayak) and Bidayuh (formerly called Land Dayak) peoples. [...] Although lines of demarcation are often difficult to establish, the most prominent of the numerous Dayak subgroups are the Kayan (in Kalimantan usually called Bahau) and Kenyah, primarily of southeastern Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan; the Ngaju of central and southern Kalimantan; the Bidayuh of southwestern Sarawak and western Kalimantan; and the Iban of Sarawak.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak</a>§REF§ The Iban claim to originate in the Kapuas Basin, but migration was common: 'The Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas Lake region of Kalimantan. With a growing population creating pressures on limited amounts of productive land, the Iban fought members of other tribes aggressively, practicing headhunting and slavery. Enslavement of captives contributed to the necessity to move into new areas. By the middle of the 19th century, they were well established in the First and Second Divisions, and a few had pioneered the vast Rejang River valley. Reacting to the establishment of the Brooke Raj in Sarawak in 1841, thousands of Iban migrated to the middle and upper regions of the Rejang, and by the last quarter of the century had entered all remaining Divisions.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ But during the age of imperialism, contact with Europeans and Chinese traders and pirates became more common in Borneo: 'Modern European knowledge of Borneo dates from travelers who passed through Southeast Asia in the 14th century. The first recorded European visitor was the Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone, who visited Talamasim on his way from India to China in 1330. The Portuguese, followed by the Spanish, established trading relations on the island early in the 16th century. At the beginning of the 17th century the Portuguese and Spanish trade monopoly was broken by the Dutch, who, intervening in the affairs of the Muslim kingdoms, succeeded in replacing Mataram influence with their own. The coastal strip along the South China and Sulu seas was long oriented toward the Philippines to the northeast and was often raided by Sulu pirates. British interests, particularly in the north and west, diminished that of the Dutch. The Brunei sultanate was an Islamic kingdom that at one time had controlled the whole island but by the 19th century ruled only in the north and northwest. In 1841 Sarawak was split away on the southwest, becoming an independent kingdom ruled by the Brooke Raj. North Borneo (later Sabah) to the northeast was obtained by a British company to promote trade and suppress piracy, but it was not demarcated until 1912. Those losses left a much-reduced Brunei, which became a British protectorate in 1888.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§ The island of Borneo also has a long history of interethnic mingling, extending supracultural interaction to non-Dayak communities on the island: 'Iban have lived near other ethnic groups with whom they have interacted. The most important of these societies have been the Malays, Chinese, Kayan, and during the Brooke Raj and the period of British colonialism, Europeans. The dynamic relations between Iban and these societies have produced profound changes in Iban society and culture.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ We follow eHRAF in grouping the island of Borneo with South-East Asia §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia</a>§REF§. Wikipedia gives the geographical size of South-East Asia as 4,500,000 km2 §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia</a>§REF§. We follow eHRAF in grouping the island of Borneo with South-East Asia §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia</a>§REF§. Wikipedia gives the geographical size of South-East Asia as 4,500,000 km2 §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4500000, "scale_to": 4500000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The Iban belong to the non-Muslim 'tribal' population of Borneo: 'Dayak, also spelled Dyak, Dutch Dajak, the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the island of Borneo, most of whom traditionally lived along the banks of the larger rivers. Their languages all belong to the Indonesian branch of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language family. Dayak is a generic term that has no precise ethnic or tribal significance. Especially in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), it is applied to any of the (non-Muslim) indigenous peoples of the interior of the island (as opposed to the largely Malay population of the coastal areas). In Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah), it is used somewhat less extensively and is often understood locally to refer specifically to Iban (formerly called Sea Dayak) and Bidayuh (formerly called Land Dayak) peoples. [...] Although lines of demarcation are often difficult to establish, the most prominent of the numerous Dayak subgroups are the Kayan (in Kalimantan usually called Bahau) and Kenyah, primarily of southeastern Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan; the Ngaju of central and southern Kalimantan; the Bidayuh of southwestern Sarawak and western Kalimantan; and the Iban of Sarawak.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak</a>§REF§ 'The Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas Lake region of Kalimantan. With a growing population creating pressures on limited amounts of productive land, the Iban fought members of other tribes aggressively, practicing headhunting and slavery. Enslavement of captives contributed to the necessity to move into new areas. By the middle of the 19th century, they were well established in the First and Second Divisions, and a few had pioneered the vast Rejang River valley. Reacting to the establishment of the Brooke Raj in Sarawak in 1841, thousands of Iban migrated to the middle and upper regions of the Rejang, and by the last quarter of the century had entered all remaining Divisions.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ During the colonial period, cross-cultural interactions intensified, but the island of Borneo has a long history of interethnic mingling, extending supracultural interaction to non-Dayak communities on the island: 'Iban have lived near other ethnic groups with whom they have interacted. The most important of these societies have been the Malays, Chinese, Kayan, and during the Brooke Raj and the period of British colonialism, Europeans. The dynamic relations between Iban and these societies have produced profound changes in Iban society and culture.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ We have followed eHRAF in grouping Borneo with South-East Asia §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=1</a>§REF§. Wikipedia gives the total size of South-East Asia as 4,500,000 km2 §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 300000, "scale_to": 300000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. Very rough estimate." }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 100000, "scale_to": 100000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. This crude approximation reflects the substantial Jewish populations in Egypt and Mesopotamia." }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 10000, "scale_to": 20000, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. This represents the roughly-estimated area of both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms. The precise extent of both is uncertain, as is the distinction between territory they controlled directly versus territory that was subject to them indirectly.§REF§Estimated using <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://geacron.com/home-en/\" rel=\"nofollow\">Geacron</a> for 900 BCE.§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4771577, "scale_to": 4771577, "comment": null, "description": "km squared. The A’chik are usually grouped with the Bodo Peoples: ‘The Garo are a Tibeto-Burman-speaking matrilineal people, the bulk of whose population - some 240,000 - is to be found in the Garo Hills in the western part of India’s Meghalaya state. But there is also a much smaller Garo population - about 80,000 - living in Bangladesh territory, most of it in the far north of Mymensingh district on the Indo-Bangladesh border.’ §REF§Khaleque, Kibriaul 1988. “Garo Of Bangladesh: Religion, Ritual And World View”, 129§REF§ The A’chik also interacted with Zamindar and British forces entering the hills area. Zamindars controlling neighbouring areas led expeditions into the Garo Hills, subjugating parts of them: ‘In pre-British days the areas adjacent to the present habitat of the Garo were under the Zeminders of Karaibari, Kalumalupara, Habraghat, Mechpara and Sherpore. Garos of the adjoining areas had to struggle constantly with these Zeminders. Whenever the employees of the Zeminders tried to collect taxes or to oppress the Garo in some way or other, they retaliated by coming down to the plains and murdering ryots of the Zeminders. In 1775-76 the Zeminders of Mechpara and Karaibari led expeditions to the hills near about their Zeminderies and subjugated a portion of what is at present the Garo Hills district. The Zeminder of Karaibari appointed Rengtha or Pagla, a Garo as his subordinate.’ §REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 29§REF§ ‘After settling in the hills, Garos initially had no close and constant contact with the inhabitants of the adjoining plains. In 1775-76 the Zamindars of Mechpara and Karaibari (at present in the Goalpara and Dhubri districts of Assam) led expeditions onto the Garo hills. The first contact with British colonialists was in 1788, and the area was brought under administrative control in the year 1873.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ During the 19th century, the Indian subcontinent was subject to increasing colonial influence, ‘a process that culminated in the decline of the ruling Muslim elite and absorption of the subcontinent within the British Empire. Direct administration by the British, which began in 1858, effected a political and economic unification of the subcontinent. When British rule came to an end in 1947, the subcontinent was partitioned along religious lines into two separate countries-India, with a majority of Hindus, and Pakistan, with a majority of Muslims; the eastern portion of Pakistan later split off to form Bangladesh. Many British institutions stayed in place (such as the parliamentary system of government)’ §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/India\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/India</a>§REF§ We have followed eHRAF in the grouping of Bodo Peoples with South Asia §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=1</a>§REF§. We have used the figures provided in this non-academic source §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.tradingeconomics.com/south-asia/land-area-sq-km-wb-data.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.tradingeconomics.com/south-asia/land-area-sq-km-wb-data.html</a>§REF§." } ] }