Polity Peak Years List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Peak Years.
GET /api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 302, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 317, "polity": { "id": 639, "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1550, "peak_year_to": 1650, "comment": null, "description": "“The Ajuuraan state gradually became a notable and well-respected empire between 1550 and 1650, using a strong centralized administration and aggressive army to project itself as a force in the region.” §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 40) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§" }, { "id": 318, "polity": { "id": 642, "name": "so_geledi_sultanate", "long_name": "Sultanate of Geledi", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1911 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1789, "peak_year_to": 1848, "comment": null, "description": "“Among the motley group of states that succeeded the Ajuuraan state, the Gobroon Dynasty stood out as the most successful. Under one of its sultans, known as Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, the third sultan, who ruled from 1789 to 1848, the kingdom entered into an era now called the Golden Age of the Gobroon Dynasty.” §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§" }, { "id": 319, "polity": { "id": 648, "name": "so_majeerteen_sultanate", "long_name": "Majeerteen Sultanate", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1800, "peak_year_to": 1860, "comment": null, "description": "The peak dates shown highlight the apex of the Sultanate in the early nineteenth century (approximate date of the beginning of the peak not known) before being involved in treaty agreements with the British government in 1839. The Sultanate prospered under the Sultan Isman Mahamud who ruled from 1844 to 1860. The Sultanate began to unravel due to foreign contact with the British and the Italians and fighting between Sultan Isman Mahamud and his rival cousin Yusuf Ali. “Although the Majerteen Sultanate was founded in the second half of the eighteenth century it only came into prominence in the nineteenth century following the time in power of the famous Boqor Isman Mahamud.” §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§" }, { "id": 320, "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1644, "peak_year_to": 1680, "comment": null, "description": "“The Funj sultanate reached its maximum power in the reign of Badi II (1644-80). In the mid-eighteenth century, the state disintegrated into regional warlord-ships, supported by rich merchants and landowners.” §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 621) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SRW6XCHP/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 321, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1798, "peak_year_to": 1821, "comment": null, "description": "“1798-1821 is the height of the Kafa empire under the leadership of Hoti Ginoch-during this time there are thirty-eight Kingdoms and chiefdoms paying tribute to Kafa.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 322, "polity": { "id": 652, "name": "et_harar_emirate", "long_name": "Emirate of Harar", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1875 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1680, "peak_year_to": 1790, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote does not give definitive dates regarding the peak of the polity. However, the rage is based on Abir’s assessment. “The development of trade in the Red Sea in the last decades of the seventeenth century probably affected the economy of Harar and contributed to some extent to its relative political stability. The Sultanate, nonetheless, began to decline at the end of the eighteenth century.” §REF§ (Abir 2008, 552) Abir, Mordecai. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 537-577. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Abir/titleCreatorYear/items/JHH9VH96/item-list §REF§" }, { "id": 323, "polity": { "id": 653, "name": "et_aussa_sultanate", "long_name": "Early Sultanate of Aussa", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1700, "peak_year_to": 1780, "comment": null, "description": "Mordechai Abir gives an unspecified start and end of peak dates. “In the 18th century, the Sultanate of Aussa, dominated by the Mudaito Asaimara and having a Mudaito Sultan, was the strongest and most important Afar political unit. However, it seems that by the end of the 18th century the Aussa Sultanate was past its peak, and the Adoimara Afar started to encroach on Aussa Territory.” §REF§ (Abir 1966, 6) Abir, M. 1966. “Salt, Trade and Politics in Ethiopia in the ‘Zämänä Mäsafent”. Journal of Ethiopian Studies. Vol 4:2. Pp 1-10. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7U3R35T/library §REF§" }, { "id": 324, "polity": { "id": 658, "name": "ni_kwararafa", "long_name": "Kwararafa", "start_year": 596, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1600, "peak_year_to": 1600, "comment": null, "description": "“the Jukun people were already established in the middle Benue basin and also in the Gongola valley during the period 1200-1600. It is even possible that their expansion into Kasar Chiki had already started in the sixteenth century. During the period under discussion they had established a powerful state, which by 1600 was approaching the peak of its military might. The early importance of the Jukun is also suggested by the fact that there are some ethnic groups which either claim descent from the Jukun or have copied many aspects of their culture, directly or through the Igala.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann ; University of California Press: 283. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “The Jukun-speaking peoples of Northern Nigeria are believed to be the descendants of the ruling stratum of the powerful Kororofa 'empire' (probably a loose federation of tribes), which dominated the Benue Valley from about the fourteenth century to the middle of the eighteenth.” §REF§ Young, M. W. (1966). The Divine Kingship of the Jukun: A Re-Evaluation of Some Theories. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 36(2), 135–153: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NTI9GQMF/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 325, "polity": { "id": 659, "name": "ni_allada_k", "long_name": "Allada", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1724 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1500, "peak_year_to": 1700, "comment": null, "description": "“At its political and economic peak in the 16th and 17th centuries, the coastal kingdom of Allada stretched from the port of Offra – now the suburb of Godomey in the current Republic of Benin’s commercial capital of Cotonou – approximately 50 miles north into the hinterland beyond its capital city, also known as Allada.” §REF§Aderinto, Saheed. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC- CLIO, 2017: 7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EB5TWDG7/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 326, "polity": { "id": 661, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_2", "long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́", "start_year": 1601, "end_year": 1835 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1730, "peak_year_to": 1790, "comment": null, "description": "“By 1730, Oyo had become the largest political formation in West Africa south of the River Niger, stretching its arms across both the savanna and the rainforest belts, with a vast network of towns, villages, colonies, and kingdoms under its control.” §REF§ Ogundiran, Akinwumi & Agbaje-Williams, Babatunde (2017). In Gosselain, O. P., & MacEachern, S. Field Manual for African Archaeology (A. Livingstone-Smith & E. Cornelissen, Eds.): 69. Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JRMZECR5/collection§REF§ “The Old Oyo Empire […] rose to prominence in the 17th century and reached its peak in the 18th century. When the empire finally collapsed in 1835, it was territorially the largest and the most politically powerful Yoruba kingdom ever. Scholars do not agree on the extent of the size of the Old Oyo Empire. However, However, what is certain is that at the height of its power in the 18th century, the eastern end of the empire extended from the coast near Badagry northward along the western boundary of Ijebu territories”. §REF§Aderinto, Saheed. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC-CLIO, 2017: 244. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EB5TWDG7/note/U7W4UF33/ collection§REF§ Robin Law splits the chronology into: The Oyo Empire (c. 1600–c. 1790); The Fall of the Oyo Empire (c. 1790–c. 1836). §REF§Law, R. (1977). The Oyo Empire c. 1600 – c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB32ZPCF/collection§REF§ Law also includes a map named “3. The oyo Kingdom at its greatest extent (c. 1780).” §REF§ Law, R. (1977). The Oyo Empire c. 1600 – c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press: 89. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB32ZPCF/collection§REF§ “Ojigi did not, however, carry the Oyo empire to its greatest power and extent. Dahomey revolted, and had to be reconquered in a war fought in 1739–48. Further campaigning was also necessary in Egbaland, under Ojigi’s successor Gberu. Expansion continued under Basorun Gaha, who usurped effective power at Oyo in 1754–74, and who was responsible for the Oyo colonization of the Ewon area of northern Egbado. The period of Gaha’s rule apparently also saw Oyo forces operating far away to the west, close to the River Volta, where they are reported to have inflicted a defeat on the Asante in 1764. It was under Alafin Abiodun, who overthrew Gaha in 1774 and ruled until his death in 1789, that the Oyo empire attained its greatest extent. Abiodun organized the Oyo colonization of the southern Egbado area around Ilaro, and exacted tribute from the coastal kingdom of Porto Novo. He also campaigned in Egbaland, and effected the conquest, in 1788, of the Mahi country between Sabe and Dahomey.” §REF§Law, R. (1977). The Oyo Empire c. 1600 – c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press: 239. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB32ZPCF/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 327, "polity": { "id": 662, "name": "ni_whydah_k", "long_name": "Whydah", "start_year": 1671, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1671, "peak_year_to": 1700, "comment": null, "description": "“From the 1670s, however, it developed into a major center of the Atlantic slave trade, rivalling and then eclipsing Allada as the principal supplier of slaves in the region. Its political and commercial florescence proved to be brief, falling before the expansion of the hinterland kingdom of Dahomey in the 1720s. The Dahomians, having already conquered Allada in 1724, invaded Whydah in 1727, inflicting devastating destruction upon the country and driving out its king and much of its population into exile to the west.2 In the years preceding this conquest in 1727, Whydah had suffered protracted and bitter internal disputes, degenerating on more than one occasion into actual civil war, and these domestic divisions clearly contributed to its failure to present any effective resistance to the Dahomian conquest.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 201. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§ “By the early seventeenth century, Allada was the leading Aja polity. It first appeared on a map of the 1480s but was clearly more ancient. In the mid-seventeenth century, the coastal polity of Whydah, previously subject to Allada, gained its independence and from 1671 on, it dominated the external trade of the coast.” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 348. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 328, "polity": { "id": 666, "name": "ni_sokoto_cal", "long_name": "Sokoto Caliphate", "start_year": 1804, "end_year": 1904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1860, "peak_year_to": 1860, "comment": null, "description": "“At its apex in 1860, the Caliphate then as a continuous phenomenon had over 31 emirates under allegiance, with Kebbi, Kano, Zazzau (Zaria), Bauchi, Ilorin, Nupe and Muri been the prominent ones.” §REF§Okene, Ahmed Adam, and Shukri B. Ahmad. “Ibn Khaldun, Cyclical Theory and the Rise and Fall of Sokoto Caliphate, Nigeria West Africa.” International Journal of Business and Social Science, vol. 2, no. 4, 2011, pp. 80–91: 81. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/H7J2NC37/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 329, "polity": { "id": 667, "name": "ni_igala_k", "long_name": "Igala", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1799, "peak_year_to": 1799, "comment": null, "description": "“By the close of the 18th century Igala had developed into a large and powerful state, and had in all probability reached its zenith. The eastern boundary of Igala proper ran from the River Ocheku through Agatu, Ocheku, Adoka, Boju, through the Idoma and Nsukka countries to Damoogoo (shown on the old maps but now deserted) on the Niger some little way above Onitsha. To this must be added the external fiefs of Igbirra Panda, Igbirra Igu (Koton Karifi) and Ishabe (Kakanda), whilst the Ata's writ on the Niger itself extended from the limits of the Benin \" influence \" to the Bussa rapids, where Mungo Park met his death.” §REF§Clifford, Miles, and Richmond Palmer. “A Nigerian Chiefdom.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 393–435: 400. zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TF7MM698/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 330, "polity": { "id": 668, "name": "ni_nri_k", "long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì", "start_year": 1043, "end_year": 1911 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1100, "peak_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "Suggests twelfth to fifteenth centuries as peak of the spread of Nri lineages: “The proliferation and spread of Nri lineages with the spread of Nri hegemony is another example of lineage migration; they were established by a few men in most of the older Igbo settlements. Nri political and ritual activities, in Ozo title, cleansing of abomination, yam growth, abrogation of rituals and rules of taboo and avoidance, led to the invitation of Nri people to their midst, such an arrangement had political consequences, including annual tribute to the Eze Nri (see Nwankwo's description in her article in number 2 the Odinani (Journal). Nri men residing abroad were the Eze's 'eyes and ears', manipulating internal and external settlement affairs through the visits of itinerant Nri (Onwuejeogwu 1972, 1974, 1975). These methods of political and ritual agency might have started in the 9th century, increasing through the 12th to 15th centuries and declining until collapse on the British ban of Nri activities in 1911.” §REF§ Onwuejeogwu, M. A. (1979). The Genesis, Diffusion, Structure and Significance of Ọzọ Title in Igbo Land. Paideuma, 25, 117–143: 127. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/K2EIJVZ8/collection§REF§“The Nri sphere of ritual influence was probably at its greatest between 1100 and 1400.” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 246. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 331, "polity": { "id": 669, "name": "ni_hausa_k", "long_name": "Hausa bakwai", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1808 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1349, "peak_year_to": 1600, "comment": null, "description": "Kano is the most prominent of the seven Hausa kingdoms, and seems to have reached its peak in the 14th and 15th centuries. “By 1200, the Kano rulers had subdued nearly all the independent chiefdoms in the area, with the exception of Santolo, which remained independent for another 150 years. Under Yaji (1349-85) the process of subjugating the country and people around the city was brought to a successful conclusion, although many groups in Kano and outside occasionally rose in revolt.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 271. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “Kananeji (1390-1410) continued the policy of expansion and in two campaigns subdued Zazzau, whose king was killed in the battle. Relations with Kwararafa were seemingly peaceful and Kano exchanged its horses for slaves. External contacts were stepped up, as shown by the introduction of lifidi (the quilted protection for war-horses), iron helmets and coats of mail.23 Under Dauda (1421-38), the foreign influence became more marked with the arrival of a refugee Bornu prince with his men and a large number of mallams. Apart from such regalia as horses, drums, trumpets and flags, it seems that the Bornu people also brought with them more sophisticated concepts of administration, and it was from that time onwards that Bornu titles such as galadima, chiroma and kaigama came into use in Kano.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 272. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “Although wars and raids continued throughout the whole of the fifteenth century, the growing commercial activities of the Kanawa represented a more important development. A road from Bornu to Gwanja (Gonja in modern Ghana) is said to have been opened in the 1450s; camels and salt from the Sahara became common in Hausaland; and a profitable trade was started in kola nuts and eunuchs. The growing prosperity of the kingdom, as well as the more pronounced Islamic character of the ruling class, attracted many Muslim clerics to Kano. In the 1450s, the Fulani came to Hausaland from Mali, bringing 'books on divinity and etymology' (formerly only books on law and the traditions had been known); the end of the century witnessed the arrival of a number of rif (descendants of the Prophet Muhammad ) and the vigorous Muslim cleric, al-Maghîlï.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 272. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “With Sarki Muhammad Korau (1445-95), who was probably the founder of a new dynasty, we are on firmer historical ground. […]With such a strong economic and political base, Muhammad Korau began to raid far and wide, until he had carved for himself a large domain, the kingdom of Katsina; he is traditionally regarded as its first Muslim ruler.27 It was during his reign that al-Maghîlï visited the city; the Gobarau mosque, part of which still stands, was built during the same period, modelled on the mosques of Gao and Jenne.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 273. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “From the beginning of the sixteenth century, Zazzau embarked on territorial expansion in the west and south. According to historical tradition, the Zazzau army was led in some campaigns by the gimbiya (Princess) Amïna, daughter of Bakwa, who also fortified Zaria and Kufena with wide city walls. […] The legend depicts her as a great warrior who campaigned beyond the frontiers of Zazzau as far as Nupeland in the south-west and Kwararafa in the south-east. The Kano Chronicle states that the Sarkin Nupe sent her [the princess] forty eunuchs and 10,000 kola nuts. She was the first in Hausaland to own eunuchs and kola nuts. In her time all the products of the west were introduced into Hausaland.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 275. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “It can be seen from the foregoing that the period between 1200 and 1600 must be considered crucial in the history of the Hausa people. During that time they established centralized governments in half a dozen states, based on walled capital cities, which also became important as commercial centres. Some of these states had already begun to expand and to attack other peoples, both in Hausaland and beyond.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 278. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 332, "polity": { "id": 670, "name": "ni_bornu_emp", "long_name": "Kanem-Borno", "start_year": 1380, "end_year": 1893 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1571, "peak_year_to": 1583, "comment": null, "description": "The peak is identified as the reign of Mai Idris Aloma, but the end date of his reign doesn’t seem certain. “Like most of the pre-colonial empires in Africa, the fortunes of Kanem Borno fluctuated depending on the dynamism of its ruler. Kanem Borno is generally believed to have reached its height of glory during the reign of Mai Idris Aloma. But his successors could not match his ability, hence the empire began to decline.” §REF§ADEFUYE, A., & Adefuye, A. I. (1984). THE KANURI FACTOR IN NIGERIA – CHAD RELATIONS. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 12(3/4), 121–137: 122. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/3D2ZCZP4/collection§REF§ “The manuscript was called by Dr. Barth “A history of the first twelve years of the reign of Mai (king) Idris Alooma.” That is therefore probably the most suitable title for it. It embraces accounts of the various expeditions or wars undertaken by that monarch between the year 1571 when he ascended the throne, and about the year 1583, excluding his expeditions to Kanem, East of Lake Chad which were treated of in a subsequent work.” §REF§Fartua, A. I. (2019). History of the First Twelve Years of the Reign of Mai Idris Alooma of Bornu (1571–1583). CRC Press: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HSU9ZCRC/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 333, "polity": { "id": 671, "name": "ni_dahomey_k", "long_name": "Foys", "start_year": 1715, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1818, "peak_year_to": 1858, "comment": null, "description": "“In the history of the Abomey dynasty two names have stood out in the memory of Dahomeans by virtue of the renown and the conquests of the kings who bore them. The first, Agadja, who reigned from 1708 to 1732, is considered the country’s greatest warrior king. […] Agadja’s successors all extended the boundaries of the kingdom. In 1818 Gezo, the king who was to become the most revered in Dahomean history, came to the throne. He early proved himself a consummate politician and a skilful warrior and also established a close control over the whole kingdom by organizing a highly specialized administration. He managed to wrest independence from his Oyo suzerains, who were by now weakened by the Fulani invasions. He continued his predecessors’ military expeditions against the Yoruba chiefdoms and kingdoms to the north and east of his kingdom. During his long reign the arts and crafts flourished at the royal court, which reached an unprecedented splendour. By 1858, the year of Gezo’s death, the kingdom had reached its apogee.” §REF§Lombard, J. (1976). The Kingdom of Dahomey. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 70–92). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 72–73. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/T6WTVSHZ/collection§REF§ “Most of the chroniclers depend on the memoirs of Archibald Dalzel, published in 1793, for systematic information on the early history of Dahomey. Since it is generally agreed that Dalzel was a scrupulous observer, we have a chain of data stretching back to the early 1600s. Where gaps appear, it is doubtful that they can ever be precisely filled, for beginning with the French conquest in 1892, Dahomey has become increasingly part of the contemporary world.” §REF§Diamond, S. (1996). DAHOMEY: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PROTO-STATE: An Essay in Historical Reconstruction. Dialectical Anthropology, 21(2), 121–216: 127-128. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MW2G58RP/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 334, "polity": { "id": 679, "name": "se_jolof_emp", "long_name": "Jolof Empire", "start_year": 1360, "end_year": 1549 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1400, "peak_year_to": 1499, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote does not give definitive dates but does indicated an approximate date range. “The Djolof Empire reached its peak during the fifteenth century, when it controlled much of modern Senegal’s heartland north of the Gambia River.” §REF§ (Gellar, 2020) Gellar, Sheldon. 2020. Senegal: An African Nation Between Islam and the West. Second Edition. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZCQVA3UX/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 335, "polity": { "id": 690, "name": "bu_burundi_k", "long_name": "Burundi", "start_year": 1680, "end_year": 1903 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1796, "peak_year_to": 1850, "comment": null, "description": "\"In the 19th century, sources become easier to find; they describe with precision the reigns of the successive kings (mwami). During the long reign of Ntare II Rugamba (c.1796– c.1850), the kingdom expanded, overflowing the territorial boundaries of today’s Burundi following a series of wars: defensive wars against Rwanda; wars of conquest against several kingdoms (Buha, Bushubi, Bugesera, Bushi); and turf wars between rival chiefs trying to enlarge their territories. Politics relied on a military capacity that made Burundi a state feared by its neighbors.\"§REF§(Van Schuylenbergh 2016) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EER653TS/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 336, "polity": { "id": 695, "name": "ug_nkore_k_2", "long_name": "Nkore", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1800, "peak_year_to": 1901, "comment": null, "description": "Broad estimate inferred from the following. \"With Bunyoro-Kitara's decline Nkore's political position gradually became stronger. Several smaller neighbouring states, such as Igara, Buhweju and Buzimba, that had earlier been subject to Babito overrule, first became 'independent' (most notably in the case of Buhweju) and eventually were made to acknowledge Nkore's paramountcy, expressed through the tribute they paid to its ruler. Nkore's 'imperialism' finally reached a peak during the rule of Ntare V, shortly before the British arrived on the scene.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015: 45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM.§REF§" }, { "id": 337, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1600, "peak_year_to": 1634, "comment": null, "description": "“Thus, the dynasty of the nayaka of Thanjavur began with Sevappa Nayak in 1532 (ruled 1532 -80) and reached its zenith with Raghunatha Nayak (1600-34).” §REF§ (Lieban 2018, 53) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 338, "polity": { "id": 656, "name": "ni_yoruba_classic", "long_name": "Classical Ife", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1000, "peak_year_to": 1200, "comment": null, "description": "\"The phenomenal elaboration of material culture in the first four centuries of the second millennium A.D. have been identified as the watershed in the cultural florescence of Ile-Ife (Eyo, 1974b; Garlake, 1974, 1977; Willett, 1973), prompting Willett (1967, 1973) to call it the Classical era. I have elsewhere proposed that the Classical period can be subdivided into two phases: A.D. 1000–1200 and A.D. 1200–1400 (Ogundiran, 2001, 2003). The earlier phase was characterized by the construction of concentric walls that defined the new urban landscape (Ozanne, 1969); the florescence of art in durable media, such as copper alloys, terracotta, and granite stones, much of which serviced the royal court and the religious cults (Willett, 1967); the setting up of large-scale production of glass beads about 1.6 km. from the center of the city (Ajetunmobi, 1989; Eluyemi, 1987); the construction of large-scale impluvium houses (houses with an open central courtyard) and extensive potsherd and stone pavements around the city (Agbaje-Williams, 2001; Garlake, 1975, 1977; Ogunfolakan, 1994); and the elaboration of iconography and rituals (Eyo, 1974a, 1974b). Sacred kingship was fully developed during this period. Human sacrifice either began or increased during the eleventh century A.D., sometimes accompanying the elite burials or associated with state rituals. Mortuary goods, such as glass and carnelian beads, copper alloy sculptures and adornment, indicate the orientation of the elite towards external commerce (Garlake, 1974, p. 122).\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 150)§REF§ \"The main art-producing period of early Ife, what I define as the florescence era (Ogundiran’s Classical Period), is distinguished by both roulette- and corddecorated ceramics. Within a relatively short time span in this period, in what I identify as Ife’s high florescence era, most of the early arts appear to have been made. One can date this latter period to c. 1250–1350 CE based on a range of factors, including the thermoluminescence tests of the extant clay core in metal works and the likely reign era of OObalufon II as delimited in Ife oral histories and king lists.\"§REF§(Blier 2015: 44)§REF§" }, { "id": 339, "polity": { "id": 656, "name": "ni_yoruba_classic", "long_name": "Classical Ife", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1250, "peak_year_to": 1350, "comment": null, "description": "\"The phenomenal elaboration of material culture in the first four centuries of the second millennium A.D. have been identified as the watershed in the cultural florescence of Ile-Ife (Eyo, 1974b; Garlake, 1974, 1977; Willett, 1973), prompting Willett (1967, 1973) to call it the Classical era. I have elsewhere proposed that the Classical period can be subdivided into two phases: A.D. 1000–1200 and A.D. 1200–1400 (Ogundiran, 2001, 2003). The earlier phase was characterized by the construction of concentric walls that defined the new urban landscape (Ozanne, 1969); the florescence of art in durable media, such as copper alloys, terracotta, and granite stones, much of which serviced the royal court and the religious cults (Willett, 1967); the setting up of large-scale production of glass beads about 1.6 km. from the center of the city (Ajetunmobi, 1989; Eluyemi, 1987); the construction of large-scale impluvium houses (houses with an open central courtyard) and extensive potsherd and stone pavements around the city (Agbaje-Williams, 2001; Garlake, 1975, 1977; Ogunfolakan, 1994); and the elaboration of iconography and rituals (Eyo, 1974a, 1974b). Sacred kingship was fully developed during this period. Human sacrifice either began or increased during the eleventh century A.D., sometimes accompanying the elite burials or associated with state rituals. Mortuary goods, such as glass and carnelian beads, copper alloy sculptures and adornment, indicate the orientation of the elite towards external commerce (Garlake, 1974, p. 122).\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 150)§REF§ \"The main art-producing period of early Ife, what I define as the florescence era (Ogundiran’s Classical Period), is distinguished by both roulette- and corddecorated ceramics. Within a relatively short time span in this period, in what I identify as Ife’s high florescence era, most of the early arts appear to have been made. One can date this latter period to c. 1250–1350 CE based on a range of factors, including the thermoluminescence tests of the extant clay core in metal works and the likely reign era of OObalufon II as delimited in Ife oral histories and king lists.\"§REF§(Blier 2015: 44)§REF§" }, { "id": 340, "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "long_name": "Benin Empire", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1480, "peak_year_to": 1590, "comment": null, "description": "“In the late fifteenth century Benin was a well-established state with a large army conducting long campaigns far afield. It was already approaching the peak of its power and prosperity.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 5. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “The last three centuries of Benin’s independence saw a gradual shrinking of the area from which its government could enforce delivery of tribute and military service and secure safe passage for Benin traders, though this decline was by no means uninterrupted.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 4. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ Oba Ewuare reigned c. 1428–1455, Ozolua c. 1482–1509, Esigie c. 1509–1536. “At the high point of imperial expansion - the reigns of Eware, Ozolua, and Esigie - north-south trade was reaching levels never before attained, and such commerce continued to expand until c. 1590.” §REF§Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 415. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 341, "polity": { "id": 280, "name": "hu_hun_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of the Huns", "start_year": 376, "end_year": 469 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 434, "peak_year_to": 434, "comment": null, "description": "“It was Attila who gave the Huns a clear identity and made them, briefly, into a major political power. After his death, they disintegrated with remarkable speed… In 434 Attila became king, ruling initially with his brother BIeda.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 37-38) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§" }, { "id": 342, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1390, "peak_year_to": 1390, "comment": null, "description": "“During the 14th century, Czech society underwent fundamental changes. The consolidation of royal power and the international prestige of the ruler’s line, as well as the harmony between Charles IV and the Church, eased the conflicts with the nobility. The latter’s representatives were temporarily satisfied by appointments to important offices and the easing of the pressure that they experienced under the Přemyslids. This peaceful state of affairs enabled the nobility to improve their position, which relied on the economic prosperity of the Bohemian crown lands and their political and cultural blossoming. The Czech state found itself at its zenith at the end of the 14th century and it was recognized throughout Europe not only as the heart of the Holy Roman Empire but also as one of its engines of political and cultural change.”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 150-151) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. 2009. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§" }, { "id": 343, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1933, "peak_year_to": 1933, "comment": null, "description": " In terms of territory and population the polity became progressively more powerful and therefore the final year of the duration of the polity can be considered the peak date." }, { "id": 344, "polity": { "id": 576, "name": "us_chaco_bonito_3", "long_name": "Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1140 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1050, "peak_year_to": 1125, "comment": null, "description": " “The heyday of Chaco was 900– 1125 ce, sustained by cooler and wetter conditions that favored new strains of maize… Chaco Canyon villagers reached their maximum population of around 5,500 people by 1050 ce.”§REF§(Snow et al 2020: 195) Snow, Dean R., Gonlin, Nancy, and Siegel, Peter E. 2020. The Archaeology of Native North America, 2nd ed. London; New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5T4C9IQT§REF§" }, { "id": 345, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1865, "peak_year_to": 1865, "comment": null, "description": " In terms of territory and population, the US in this period reached its peak in 1865, just before the start of the civil war." }, { "id": 346, "polity": { "id": 591, "name": "gt_tikal_late_classic", "long_name": "Late Classic Tikal", "start_year": 555, "end_year": 869 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 734, "peak_year_to": 746, "comment": null, "description": "“No sight gives a better impression of the past glories of Maya civilisation than the towering ruins of Tikal. At its 8th-century peak a score of red-painted pyramids dominated the heart of a dispersed metropolis housing as many as 60,000 people.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 25) Martin, Simon and Nikolai Grube. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§ “While Jasaw Chan K’awiil deserves the major credit for Tikal’s upturn, it was his son the 27th ruler, Yik’in Chan K’awiil (perhaps ‘K’awiil that Darkens the Sky’) [r. 734-746 CE], who brought its imperial ambitions to real fruition and turned the city into one outshining all its rivals.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 48) Martin, Simon and Nikolai Grube. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§ " }, { "id": 347, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1580, "peak_year_to": 1610, "comment": null, "description": "In general the peak of prosperity seems to have taken place between the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries – that is with the final decades of Elizabeth I’s Tudor reign and the beginning of the Stuart dynasty under James VI (of Scotland) and I (of England). “Inflation, itself a function of demographic growth, meant that ‘for those with enough land to feed themselves and still have some left over for the market, the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a period of unprecedented prosperity’.”§REF§(Hindle 2002: 14) Hindle, Steve. 2002. The State and Social Change in Early Modern England, 1550–1640 (London: Palgrave https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GVIZDIC9§REF§ “Between 1590 and 1640 in particular, the peak of litigation coincided with the application of ‘the finishing touches’ to the ‘new jurisprudence’ (i.e. judge-made law).134 Indeed, if there was an unusually large charge of intellectual electricity around the law at the turn of the sixteenth century, there was political electricty too.135 Although the emergence of political concern among the legal profession and the elevation of common law supremacy to the status of a constitutional doctrine is usually dated to the 1620s, the politicisation of the judiciary was underway in the late sixteenth century.”§REF§(Hindle 2002: 14) Hindle, Steve. 2002. The State and Social Change in Early Modern England, 1550–1640 (London: Palgrave https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GVIZDIC9§REF§ “Perhaps this prosperity brought about increased fertility or perhaps there was a fall in the age of marriage. It does appear that by the 1480s a higher proportion of the population was marrying, which must have contributed to the rising birth-rate. Despite bad harvests in 1519-21, 1527-9, and 1544-5, fertility was high by 1550, when the evidence of parish registers is fully available. Demographers also calculate that expectation of life at birth was better after 1564 than before, though it varied from 41. 7 years in 1581 to 35. 5 years in 1591. In fact, between 1564 and 1586 mortality was less severe than it would be again before the end of the Napoleonic Wars: life expectancy at birth was roughly thirty-eight years. Although this should not obscure the fact that many children died in infancy while others lived to be fifty and a few to be ninety, the central portion of Elizabeth's reign was spared a crisis: the annual deathrate was never higher than 2.68 per cent of the population.”§REF§(Guy 1988: 33) Guy, John. 1988. Tudor England. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IIFAUUNA§REF§" }, { "id": 348, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1780, "peak_year_to": 1790, "comment": null, "description": "“In the 1780s the Habsburg dynasty’s holdings stretched from today’s cities of Innsbruck in the west to Lviv in the east, from Milan and Florence on the Italian peninsula to Antwerp on the North Sea and Cluj in the Carpathian Mountains, from Prague in Bohemia to Vukovar and down to Belgrade in the south. The Habsburgs held territories that today are located in twelve different European countries and that in the late eighteenth century included speakers of languages known today as Croatian, Czech, Flemish, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Ladin, Polish, Romanian, Serb, Slovak, Slovene, Ukrainian, and Yiddish.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 19) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§" }, { "id": 349, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1100, "peak_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "The cultural peak date of Hohokam culture is considered to be around 1100-1400 CE.§REF§“Hohokam Culture (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/34YMDDCN§REF§" }, { "id": 350, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1666, "peak_year_to": 1672, "comment": null, "description": " “By and large, historians all agree that Mawlây al-Rashïd's reign was marked by remarkable progress in all realms, unbroken peace and beneficent prosperity after the long years of strife and poverty.”§REF§(Ogot 1992: 211) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP§REF§" }, { "id": 351, "polity": { "id": 797, "name": "de_empire_1", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty", "start_year": 919, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1050, "peak_year_to": 1050, "comment": null, "description": "1050 CE could arguably be a peak date for the HRE under the Salian dynasty as they held the most territory (around 1 million square kilometres) of the polity period." }, { "id": 352, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1553, "peak_year_to": 1553, "comment": null, "description": "Assumed that the peak date in terms of total territory and population was before Charles I divided the Habsburg empire into the Austrian and Spanish branches in 1554. " }, { "id": 353, "polity": { "id": 351, "name": "am_artaxiad_dyn", "long_name": "Armenian Kingdom", "start_year": -188, "end_year": 6 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -95, "peak_year_to": -55, "comment": null, "description": "Artaxiad Armenia was at its peak power during the reign of Tigranes the Great (95-55 BCE). Tigranes was able to unify the country’s various autonomous regions, which were governed by the nakharars, and brought central control to the kingdom.§REF§“Artaxiad Dynasty,” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IVLMP6Q8§REF§ His empire, though only this large for a short time, stretched “from the Caucasus mountains and Media in the northeast to Lebanon in the southwest.”§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 64. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§" }, { "id": 354, "polity": { "id": 297, "name": "kz_oirat", "long_name": "Oirats", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1452, "peak_year_to": 1455, "comment": null, "description": "“Esen Taish ruled as khaan for the period of 1452–55. The historical sources note that these were the times of the ‘unified rule of the four and forty pair’, in other words the forty Mongol tümen and the four Oirat tümen were brought together under the rule of one khaan. In 1455, when Esen taish fell victim to the conspiracy of feudal lords, the Khalkha and the Oirat again went their separate ways.”§REF§(Gongor 2010: 511) Gongor, D. 2010. “The Twelve Tumen of the Aglas Khuree Khalkha Mongols,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WSSQBWT5§REF§" }, { "id": 355, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1312, "peak_year_to": 1341, "comment": null, "description": "Öz Beg (Uzbek) Khan is considered to be the greatest ruler of the Golden Horde. During his reign the polity reached the height of its power and Islam became the official state religion. The khan’s court was full of scholars, theologians, mathematicians and astronomers. During the reign of his son and successor, Jani Beg Khan, the Black Death hit the Horde. Jani Beg was later assassinated in 1357. As the Golden Horde would not return to its height of power again, the end of Öz Beg’s reign is considered to mark the beginning of the decline and gradual disintegration of the Golden Horde.§REF§“Golden Horde”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VXQGWC6R§REF§§REF§Halperin 1987: 27. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.§REF§§REF§Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 460. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8§REF§" }, { "id": 356, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 861, "peak_year_to": 879, "comment": null, "description": "The empire was at its peak during the reign of the dynasty founder, Ya'qub." }, { "id": 357, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1921, "peak_year_to": 1925, "comment": null, "description": "The British Empire was at its territorial peak in 1921.§REF§(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire§REF§ The population of the Empire peaked in 1925 with almost 450 million subjects. §REF§(‘Demographics of the British Empire’,) ‘Demographics of the British Empire’ in Wikipedia, 12 March 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographics_of_the_British_Empire&oldid=1076779519. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DQ743ERH §REF§ " }, { "id": 358, "polity": { "id": 785, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn_222222", "long_name": "Qasimid Dynasty XXXXXXX", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1644, "peak_year_to": 1679, "comment": null, "description": "The reign of AI-Mutawakkil ‘ala Allah Isma'il is considered to be the peak time of the Qasimids in Yemen, when the territory was at its greatest extent.§REF§Bearman 2002: 273. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B86ZAJ3C§REF§" }, { "id": 359, "polity": { "id": 598, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": 1253, "year_to": 1278, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1253, "peak_year_to": 1278, "comment": null, "description": "The peak years of the Přemyslid Dynasty in the Kingdom of Bohemia are generally considered to be during the reign of Ottokar II, who ruled from 1253 to 1278. Ottokar II, also known as Ottokar II the Iron and Golden King, is often regarded as one of the most powerful Czech monarchs. His reign is marked by significant territorial expansion, economic development, and the strengthening of royal authority.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 361, "polity": { "id": 802, "name": "de_hohenzollern_2", "long_name": "Brandenburg-Prussia", "start_year": 1618, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1740, "peak_year_to": 1786, "comment": null, "description": "Frederick the Great's military campaigns, particularly the Silesian Wars against Austria, resulted in substantial territorial gains and demonstrated Prussian military prowess. His administrative and economic reforms modernized the Prussian state.§REF§Biographie, “Friedrich der Große - Deutsche Biographie.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AF7NP8Z9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AF7NP8Z9</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 362, "polity": { "id": 330, "name": "pl_teutonic_order", "long_name": "State of the Teutonic Order", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": 1351, "year_to": 1400, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1352, "peak_year_to": 1382, "comment": null, "description": "Under Grand Master Winrich von Kniprode (1352–1382), the Teutonic Order experienced its golden age, achieving a notable victory over the Lithuanians in the Battle of Rudau in 1370.§REF§Jürgen Sarnowsky, Der Deutsche Orden, 3., durchgesehene Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2428 (München: C.H.Beck, 2022).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW4M9YTP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QW4M9YTP</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 363, "polity": { "id": 803, "name": "de_bavaria_1", "long_name": "Electorate of Bavaria", "start_year": 1623, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1745, "peak_year_to": 1777, "comment": null, "description": "Maximilian III Joseph (1745–1777), implemented various reforms that modernized the state and its institutions. His efforts in fostering the arts and sciences contributed to a cultural flourishing in Bavaria.§REF§Biographie, “Maximilian III. Joseph - Deutsche Biographie.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XDA9QHS7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XDA9QHS7</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 364, "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1682, "peak_year_to": 1725, "comment": null, "description": "Peter the Great, reigning from 1682 to 1725, put Russia into the forefront of European powers through comprehensive reforms and territorial expansion. His efforts to modernize and westernize Russian military, governmental, and societal structures significantly altered the country's trajectory. Notably, his victory in the Great Northern War (1700-1721) against Sweden secured Russia's access to the Baltic Sea, facilitating the foundation of Saint Petersburg in 1703, which became a symbol of Russia's new western-oriented outlook. Peter's reforms extended to revamping the administrative system, introducing new educational institutions, and promoting industrial development, thereby laying the groundwork for Russia's emergence as a European empire.§REF§Marc Raeff, Peter the Great Changes Russia (Heath, 1972).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETGA4BHM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ETGA4BHM</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 365, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1801, "peak_year_to": 1825, "comment": null, "description": "This period saw Russia's significant military victories, most notably during the Napoleonic Wars. Russia's pivotal role in defeating Napoleon, especially after the invasion of Russia in 1812.\r\nThe post-Napoleonic era, especially the Congress of Vienna in 1815, marked the height of Russian diplomatic influence in Europe. Alexander I played a key role in the negotiations, shaping a new European order that recognized Russia's expanded territories and status as a great power.§REF§Alan Warwick Palmer, Alan Warwick Palmer, and Alan Warwick Palmer, Alexander I: Gegenspieler Napoleons, trans. Irmingard Bechtle (Esslingen: Bechtle, 1982).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WPWL5UJP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WPWL5UJP</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 366, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "long_name": "Soviet Union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1957, "peak_year_to": 1979, "comment": null, "description": "The launch of Sputnik in 1957 marks a symbolic beginning of the peak period, demonstrating the USSR's technological prowess and its leading position in the Space Race, a key aspect of Cold War competition. This period encapsulates the height of the Soviet Union's global influence and internal cohesion, highlighted by achievements in space exploration, a strong and competitive industrial and military complex, extensive geopolitical influence through the Warsaw Pact and support for global socialist movements, and a period of cultural and scientific flourishing.§REF§Dewdney et al., “Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TWGEBIMJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TWGEBIMJ</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 367, "polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1333, "peak_year_to": 1370, "comment": null, "description": "Casimir III, the last ruler from the Piast dynasty, is widely regarded as one of Poland's greatest monarchs, known for his extensive legal, administrative, and economic reforms that strengthened the Polish state.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§" } ] }