Polity Peak Years List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Peak Years.
GET /api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 302, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1058, "peak_year_to": 1058, "comment": null, "description": "\"At the peak of their power, their empire spanned Egypt, north Africa (present day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya), Syria, Palestine, Yemen, the Arabian Peninsula, parts of Iraq, Sicily, and north-western India with additional covert cells in Byzantine and central Asian lands.\"§REF§(Qutbuddin 2011, 37) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§<br>\"Under al-Mu'zz's son and successor, al-'Aziz (d. 386/996), court life flourished and the Fatimid dynasty (dawla) reached its political, territorial and economic zenith.\"§REF§(Cortese and Calderini 2006, 18) Cortese, Delia. Calderini, Simonetta. 2006. Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>Fatimid power at peak during early years of the reign of al-Mustansir (1036-1094 CE), although \"first signs of the empire's fragile character\" 1021-1036 CE under Caliph al-Zahir. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 14-15)§REF§<br>The Mustansir Crisis. Devastating famine from 1065 CE which peaked 1070 CE with cannibalism and emigration of Jewish minority between 1060-1090 CE. However, a \"spectacular recovery\" followed Badr al-Jamali's appointment as minister 1073 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 71)§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1450, "peak_year_to": -1450, "comment": null, "description": " Hantili II noted for building achievements: \"responsible for the first extensive fortification of the capital\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 30)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1850, "peak_year_to": -1750, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Ǒzgüç N. <i>Excavations at Acemhöyük</i>. Anadolu (Anatolia) 10 (1966), pg. 29-33<br/>Taracha P. 2009. <i>Religions of Second Millenium Anatolia</i>. Dresden: Otto Harrasovitz Verlag, pg. 25-26.§REF§ <br>This period corresponds with the biggest settlement of Assyrian merchants. Also, most of the cuneiform tablets come from the stratygraphic levels dated to this period. After the conflagration which destroyed most of the mound and lower city at Açemhöyũk, and similar disasters on other temporal sites, a new settelment was built, but the care of architectural detail was much smaller. All second phase of Assyrian Colony Period in Anatolia seems to be a slow collapse of interregional net of trade§REF§Ǒzgüç N. <i>Excavations at Acemhöyük</i>. Anadolu (Anatolia) 10 (1966), pg. 29-33<br/>Taracha P. 2009. <i>Religions of Second Millenium Anatolia</i>. Dresden: Otto Harrasovitz Verlag, pg. 25-26.§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 741, "peak_year_to": 775, "comment": null, "description": "Up turn begins during reign of Leo III (r.717-741 CE): \"there is no doubt that it is in the reign of Leo III, a competent general and statesman, that the beginnings of a recovery in the empire's fortunes can be dated.\" §REF§(Haldon 2008, 258) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>741-775 CE is the period when the polity was at its peak, whether militarily, in terms of the size of territory controlled, or the degree of cultural development. This variable has a subjective element, but typically historians agree when the peak was. Series of military successes due to temporal weakness of neighbouring polities in the reign of Emperor Constantine V. §REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§<br>Peak building under Basileus Theophilus (r.829-842 CE) who \"put up the greatest number of buildings in Constantinople after Theodosius II [r.401-450 CE] and Justinian I [525-548 CE]\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 169) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ In contrast, 695-717 CE period known for being a period of anarchy.<br>Warren T. Treadgold wrote a book called \"The Byzantine Revival, 780-842\". §REF§(Treadgold 1988) Treadgold, W T. 1988. The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. Stanford University Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1025, "peak_year_to": 1025, "comment": null, "description": "\"When Basil II died in 1025 the Byzantine Empire's frontiers extended from the Danube to the Euphrates. Byzantium's only serious rivals were the Fatimids and Ottonians. But within fifty years Byzantium had collapsed.\"§REF§(Holmes 2008, 271) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Peak of military power and international prestige under Emperor Basil II (conquest of Bulgarian Empire, continuation of expansion towards Syria and Armenia).§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1180, "peak_year_to": 1180, "comment": null, "description": "\"The first acute period of disintegration in Constantinople occurred in the early 1180s as various court parties fought for control of Manuel's young heir Alexios II.\"§REF§(Holmes 2008, 276) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 170, "name": "tr_cappadocia_2", "long_name": "Late Cappadocia", "start_year": -330, "end_year": 16 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -302, "peak_year_to": -95, "comment": null, "description": " These dates correspond to the main ruling of the Ariarathid dynasty, before being taken over by rival polities (Pontus and Bithynia) and then becoming more closely affiliated with Rome. The earlier date is from when Ariarathes II regained the throne from the Roman Eumenes §REF§Simonetta, B. (1977) The Coins of the Cappadocian Kings. Fribourg: Office du Livre, p15-16§REF§; and the later date corresponds to the rule of Ariarathes IX.<br>" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 527, "peak_year_to": 542, "comment": null, "description": " For the early Byzantine period, the first half of the reign of Emperor Justinian - 527-542 CE. \"The Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c.285-450, when the population and elite numbers were low. The stagflation phase spanned c.450-541, when large estates began to appear again, when elites became more numerous and powerful, and the frequency of elite infighting and sociopolitical instability increased. The Justinian Plague struck in 541 and reduced the common population, gradually halting the expansion of the Eastern Empire, and culminating in the usurpations and civil wars of the seventh century. This was followed shortly thereafter by collapse in the Arab Conquests.\"§REF§(Baker 2011, 245-246)§REF§<br>\"Justinian died in 565, leaving a vastly expanded but perilously overstretched empire, in financial as well as in military terms. His successors were faced with the reality of dealing with new enemies, lack of ready cash, and internal discontent over high taxation and constant demands for soldiers and the necessities to support them.\" §REF§(Haldon 2008, 253-254) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1240, "peak_year_to": -1240, "comment": null, "description": " 1322-1240 BCE §REF§Ziółkowski A. 2009 Historia Powszechna. Starożytność, Warszawa: PWN, pp. 252-250§REF§ During the \"Hittite Empire period\" (c. 1400 BC- c. 1200 BC.) in central Anatolia, the people of the Hittites experienced the greatest prosperity and expanded across the largest territorial area. <i>Can we express this in a smaller time window? Ed.</i><br>\"it is somewhat ironic that the capital's most splendid material phase, both on the acropolis and in the upper city, should correspond with the beginning of an irreversible decline in the kingdom's political and military fortunes.\" referring to Hattusili III and Tudhaliya IV. §REF§(Bryce 2002, 24-25)§REF§<br>\"Tudhaliya IV, to whose credit lie the massive expansion and redevelopment of Hattusa in the final decades before its fall.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 30)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 168, "name": "tr_lydia_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia", "start_year": -670, "end_year": -546 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -560, "peak_year_to": -560, "comment": null, "description": "1. 619-560 BCE<br>Peak \"development and stability\" was the long reign of Alyattes.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 544) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. 560-546 BCE<br>The reign of Croesus, King of the saying \"as rich as Croesus\". Several campaigns during the previous reign of Alyattes and again during the reign of Croesus led to the expansion of Lydia. The Eastern border stretched to the Halys river in Central Anatolia, where eventually a peace treaty was acknowledge between the Lydians in the west and the Medians in the east. Perhaps Croesus' most significant contribution was to require that annual tribute be extracted from conquered states to the west, thus turning Lydia into an Empire. §REF§Roosevelt, C.H. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. p. 897-913§REF§<br>It became a powerful force in Anatolia during the Mermnad dynasty, where it expanded it's control to the majority of western Anatolia. A number of Mermnad kings also attacked Greek states, but Lydia never maintained control of Greek lands for long. §REF§Roosevelt, C.H. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. p. 897-913§REF§<br>Mermnad dynasty kings<br>Gyges (680 - 644 BCE); Ardys (644 - late 7th century BCE); Sadyattes (late 7th century - 610 BCE); Alyattes (610 - 560 BCE); Croesus (560 - 540's BCE)" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -306, "peak_year_to": -281, "comment": null, "description": " These dates correspond to the rule of Lysimachus from when he declared himself king in 306 BCE to when the kingdom was conquered by the Seleucid Empire in 281 BCE. §REF§Lund, H. S. (1992) Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York. p107§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1402, "peak_year_to": 1402, "comment": null, "description": " In terms of territorial extent, period of Bayezit I 1402 CE before the Battle of Anakara.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§<br>Other dates coud be 1364 CE Murat I or Bayezit I in the 1390s.<br>" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1517, "peak_year_to": 1517, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1520, "peak_year_to": 1566, "comment": null, "description": " Suleiman I, referred to as \"The Magnificent\" and \"The Lawgiver.\"<br>" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1683, "peak_year_to": 1683, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. April 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 166, "name": "tr_phrygian_k", "long_name": "Phrygian Kingdom", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -695 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -738, "peak_year_to": -696, "comment": null, "description": " The period when the king of Phrygia was Midas. It is the period when Assyrian sources tell about this kingdom, and Phrygia won the war against Assyria§REF§Ziółkowski, A., 2009, <i>General History: Antiquity</i>, pg:348§REF§. \"Like the kingdom over which it ruled, Gordium reached the peak of its development during Midas's reign.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 41)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 394, "peak_year_to": 394, "comment": null, "description": " \"The Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c.285-450, when the population and elite numbers were low. The stagflation phase spanned c.450-541, when large estates began to appear again, when elites became more numerous and powerful, and the frequency of elite infighting and sociopolitical instability increased. The Justinian Plague struck in 541 and reduced the common population, gradually halting the expansion of the Eastern Empire, and culminating in the usurpations and civil wars of the seventh century. This was followed shortly thereafter by collapse in the Arab Conquests.\"§REF§(Baker 2011, 245-246)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 171, "name": "tr_rum_sultanate", "long_name": "Rum Sultanate", "start_year": 1077, "end_year": 1307 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1220, "peak_year_to": 1237, "comment": null, "description": " \"Medieval and modern sources agree that the reign of ʿEzz-al-Din Kaykāvus I’s brother ʿAlāʾ-al-Din Kayqobād I [1220 - 1237 CE] marks the apogee of the sultanate of the Saljuqs of Rum.\" §REF§Andrew Peacock 'SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 32, "name": "us_cahokia_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1100, "peak_year_to": 1100, "comment": null, "description": " 1050-1150 CE. §REF§(Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 25)§REF§ Population peak c1100 CE.§REF§(Pauketat 2014, 15)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "us_cahokia_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1275 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1200, "peak_year_to": 1200, "comment": null, "description": "\"The people that were a part of Cahokia made a conscious decision not to continue after ca. A.D. 1250.\" §REF§(Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 24)§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1650, "peak_year_to": 1701, "comment": null, "description": " The Iroquois Confederacy pursued aggressive expansionism: 'The Iroquoian confederacy was organized sometime between 1400 and A.D. 1600 for the purpose of maintaining peaceful relations between the 5 constituent tribes. Subsequent to European contact relations within the confederacy were sometimes strained as each of the 5 tribes sought to expand and maintain its own interests in the developing fur trade. For the most part, however, the fur trade served to strengthen the confederacy because tribal interests often complemented one another and all gained from acting in concert. The League was skillful at playing French and English interests off against one another to its advantage and thereby was able to play a major role in the economic and political events of northeastern North America during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Iroquois aggressively maintained and expanded their role in the fur trade and as a result periodically found themselves at war with their neighbors, such as the Huron, Petun, and the Neutral to the West and the Susquehannock to the south. Much of the fighting was done by the Seneca, the most powerful of the Iroquoian tribes. From 1667 to the 1680s the Iroquois maintained friendly relations with the French and during this time Jesuit missions were established among each of the 5 tribes. However, Iroquois aggression and expansion eventually brought them into conflict with the French and, at the same time, into closer alliance with the English. In 1687, 1693 and 1696 French military expeditions raided and burned Iroquois villages and fields. During Queen Anne's War (1702-1713) the Iroquois allied with the English and at the War's end were acknowledged to be British subjects, though they continued to aggressively maintain and extend their middleman role between English traders at Fort Orange (Albany) and native groups farther west.' §REF§Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois§REF§ The Confederacy achieved maximum geograhpical expansion by the mid-17th century: 'Between the Hudson and lake Erie, our broad territory was occupied by the Ho-de[unknown] -no-sau-nee, or Iroquois, scattered far and wide, in small encampments, or in disconnected villages. Their council-fires, emblematical of civil jurisdiction, burned continuously from the Hudson to Niagara. At the era of Dutch discovery (1609), they had pushed their permanent possession as far west as the Genesee; and shortly after, about 1650, they extended it to the Niagara. They then occupied the entire territory of our State west of the Hudson, with the exception of certain tracts upon that river below the junction of the Mohawk, in the possession of the River Indians, and the country of the Delawares, upon the Delaware river. But both these had been subdued by the conquering Iroquois, and had become tributary nations.' §REF§Morgan, Lewis Henry, and Herbert M. Lloyd 1901. “League Of The Ho-De’-No-Sau-Nee Or Iroquois. Vol. I”, 36§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1714, "peak_year_to": 1765, "comment": null, "description": " Given the changing loyalties and various colonial incursions of the pre-independence period, a peak date is hard to identify, but the relative unity and military successes prior to the American Revolution indicate an early date: 'For a century and a quarter before the American Revolution, the Iroquois stood athwart the path from Albany to the Great Lakes, keeping the route from permanent settlement by the French and containing the Dutch and the English. In the 18th century the Six Nations remained consistent and bitter enemies of the French, who were allied with their traditional foes. The Iroquois became dependent on the British in Albany for European goods (which were cheaper there than in Montreal), and thus Albany was never attacked. The Iroquois’ success in maintaining their autonomy vis-à-vis both the French and English was a remarkable achievement for an aboriginal people that could field only 2,200 men from a total population of scarcely 12,000. During the American Revolution, a schism developed among the Iroquois. The Oneida and Tuscarora espoused the American cause, while the rest of the league, led by Chief Joseph Brant’s Mohawk loyalists, fought for the British out of Niagara, decimating several isolated American settlements. The fields, orchards, and granaries, as well as the morale of the Iroquois, were destroyed in 1779 when U.S. Major General John Sullivan led a retaliatory expedition of 4,000 Americans against them, defeating them near present-day Elmira, New York. Having acknowledged defeat in the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784), the Iroquois Confederacy effectively came to an end. In a treaty that was made at Canandaigua, New York, 10 years later, the Iroquois and the United States each pledged not to disturb the other in lands that had been relinquished or reserved. Of the Six Nations, the Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora remained in New York, eventually settling on reservations; the Mohawk and Cayuga withdrew to Canada; and, a generation later, a large group of the Oneida departed for Wisconsin.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-Confederacy\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-Confederacy</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1810, "peak_year_to": 1810, "comment": null, "description": " By this time the polity included the entire archipelago; Kamehameha’s conquest was complete. Perhaps it peaked later, though, as Kamehameha consolidated his rule and increased his wealth.<br>" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 22, "name": "us_woodland_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Early Woodland", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 150, "peak_year_to": 150, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1050, "peak_year_to": 1050, "comment": null, "description": " 1050-1150 CE. §REF§(Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 25)§REF§ Population peak c1100 CE.§REF§(Pauketat 2014, 15)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 25, "name": "us_woodland_4", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland II", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 600, "peak_year_to": 600, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 23, "name": "us_woodland_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Middle Woodland", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 300, "peak_year_to": 300, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 750, "peak_year_to": 750, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 24, "name": "us_woodland_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland I", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 450, "peak_year_to": 450, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 900, "peak_year_to": 900, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 942, "peak_year_to": 942, "comment": null, "description": " \"power declined sharply\" between 944-977 CE.§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ \"after the reign of Nasr II (913-942), the Samani power was weakened.\"§REF§(Hodgson 1977, 33) Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1977. The Venture of Islam. Volume II. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 700, "peak_year_to": 700, "comment": null, "description": " About Samarkand: \"The bewildering Afrasiab paintings belong to the 7th century AD, when the cultural activity of the city had reached its peak.\" §REF§(Frumkin 1970, 124)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1449, "peak_year_to": 1449, "comment": null, "description": " Death of Ulughbeg.<br>" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 353, "name": "ye_himyar_1", "long_name": "Himyar I", "start_year": 270, "end_year": 340 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 300, "peak_year_to": 300, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "ye_himyar_2", "long_name": "Himyar II", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 378, "peak_year_to": 378, "comment": null, "description": "The 378-525 CE period the saw the progressive decline of trade revenues, especially after the Roman emperor Theodosius in 395 CE declared Christianity to be the official state religion of the Roman Empire which crippled the demand for incense which was a product that was most commonly used in pagan rituals.§REF§(Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "ye_rasulid_dyn", "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1300, "peak_year_to": 1350, "comment": null, "description": " \"The later thirteenth and fourteenth centuries saw the zenith of Rasulid political power and cultural splendour.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>\"after the death of Salah al-Din Ahmad in 827/1424, the Rasulid state began to show signs of disintegration, with indiscipline among the Rasulids' slave troops, a series of short-reigned rulers and internecine warfare among several pretenders.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>Al-Khazraji \"dates the ruin of the Tihama to the year 1353, and ascribes it to the malevolence of a deputy governor at Fashal\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 122) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "ye_warlords", "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1067, "peak_year_to": 1091, "comment": null, "description": "Sulayhids: under al-Mukarram \"the kingdom reached its maximum geographic extent and the apogee of its influence abroad.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 66-67) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>The 12th century was characterized by decentralization.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 76) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 359, "name": "ye_ziyad_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Ziyadid Dynasty", "start_year": 822, "end_year": 1037 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1000, "peak_year_to": 1000, "comment": null, "description": " \"In 1007 a Yu'firid prince of the Ismaili persuasion, 'Abdullah ibn Qahtan, suceeded to the rule of Sanaa, and even made a successful foray against that stronghold of Sunnism, the Ziyad state in the Tihama, now in its decline.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 57) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>A Zaidi chronicler reported that \"From [1014-1056] ruin prevailed in Sanaa and elsewhere in the country of Yemen by reason of the prevalence of disputes, rivalries, and disunity within this single nation. Darkness fell over Yemen, its desolation became universal, and public order disappeared. Sanaa and its suburbs became as if they had burned down. Every year, even every month, some new sultan seized power; the inhabitants became so extenuated that they dispersed in all directions. The city fell into ruin. Construction declined to the point where there were only a thousand houses, whereas in the time of al-Rashid there had been one hundred thousand. However, Sanaa recovered somewhat in the time of the Sulayhids, who gathered the lords of Yemen around themselves.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 57) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"The mid-to-late-800s is a period of struggle between the Banu Ziyad of the Tihama and the Yufirids of the highlands, as well as intense Ismaili (Fatimid) missionary efforts in Yemen.\"§REF§(Burrows 2010, xxiv) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham.§REF§" }, { "id": 305, "polity": { "id": 610, "name": "gu_futa_jallon", "long_name": "Futa Jallon", "start_year": 1725, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1800, "peak_year_to": 1896, "comment": null, "description": "\"In the field of religion and culture, the nineteenth century is said to have witnessed the golden age of Islam in the Futa Jalon. It was the century of great scholars and the growth of Islamic culture. All the disciplines of the Quran were known and taught: translation, the hadiths, law, apologetics, the ancillary sciences such as grammar, rhetoric, literature, astronomy, local works in Pular and Arabic, and mysticism. Nineteenth-century European visitors were highly impressed by the extent of the Islamization, which was visible in the large number of mosques and schools at all levels, the degree of scholarship, the richness of the libraries, and the widespread practice of Islamic worship. All this seems to have been facilitated by the use of the local language, Pular, as a medium of teaching and popularization of Islamic rules and doctrine.\" §REF§(Barry 2005: 539) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/6TXWGHAX/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 306, "polity": { "id": 612, "name": "ni_nok_1", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1500, "peak_year_to": -901, "comment": null, "description": "\"[T]he Nok Culture can be viewed as a tripartite complex: starting with the onset of farming in the middle of the second millennium BCE, leading to a flourishing period between approximately 900 and 400 BCE with dense occupation, elaborate terracotta art and the advent of iron metallurgy, followed by its sudden decline and ultimate disappearance in the last centuries BCE. The Nok tradition vanishes around the turn of the eras, possibly related to unfavourable environmental changes (Höhn & Neumann 2016). Younger sites, up to historical times, are grouped together artificially as “Post-Nok” sites, in order to separate them from the Nok sites. Besides the complete absence of Nok sculptures, there is also a marked difference in pottery decoration techniques as well as in the chemical composition of the clay used for pottery making (Beck 2015; Franke 2015).\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 244) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.§REF§" }, { "id": 307, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1080, "peak_year_to": 1300, "comment": null, "description": "Between conversion to Islam and the crisis that began in the thirteenth century. \"After the eleventh century the Sayfuwa [dynasty] began to incorporate Islamic principles into their political system, and soon afterward territorial expansion into areas north and west began. [...] By the thirteenth century the political and territorial influence of the rulers of Kanem had expanded. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described a caravan with gifts arriving at Tunis in 1257 from 'the king of Kanem . . . ruler of Barnu' (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981: 337). It is from then on that the toponym 'Borno' appears in the text sources. This land of Borno would be of essential importance to the history of the empire since, shortly after Ibn Khaldun wrote his text, a long lingering conflict between the Sayfuwa and a neighboring nomadic ethnic group, the Bulala, broke out. This led to the collapse of the first Sayfuwa state and the abandonment of Kanem (Barth 1857-59 II: 33). The court left the old capital and migrated to a place variously called Jaja or Kaka, where a new political center was established. This Jaja/Kaka was situated in the land of Borno (Barkindo 1985: 240; Lange, 1993: 272). It seems, however, that on-going conflicts with the local population led to an abandonment of Jaja/Kaka and the Kanem-Borno mais were forced to move their seat frequently (Barkindo 1985: 245).\" §REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 103)§REF§" }, { "id": 308, "polity": { "id": 615, "name": "ni_nok_2", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -900, "end_year": 0 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -900, "peak_year_to": -400, "comment": null, "description": "\"[T]he Nok Culture can be viewed as a tripartite complex: starting with the onset of farming in the middle of the second millennium BCE, leading to a flourishing period between approximately 900 and 400 BCE with dense occupation, elaborate terracotta art and the advent of iron metallurgy, followed by its sudden decline and ultimate disappearance in the last centuries BCE. The Nok tradition vanishes around the turn of the eras, possibly related to unfavourable environmental changes (Höhn & Neumann 2016). Younger sites, up to historical times, are grouped together artificially as “Post-Nok” sites, in order to separate them from the Nok sites. Besides the complete absence of Nok sculptures, there is also a marked difference in pottery decoration techniques as well as in the chemical composition of the clay used for pottery making (Beck 2015; Franke 2015).\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 244) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.§REF§" }, { "id": 309, "polity": { "id": 623, "name": "zi_toutswe", "long_name": "Toutswe", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 900, "peak_year_to": 900, "comment": null, "description": "By 10th century, the cultures of the region exhibit evidence of stratification, as well as regional trade links to neighbouring polities, such as Mapungubwe. “Around the year 700, pastoralists began to move into the area… taking advantage… of local pasturage to support larger cattle herds. Here they came into contact with the Khoisan people already resident in the area…. By 900 a stratified and hierarchical society was emerging on the fringes of the Kalahari Desert, linked regionally to other emergent states like that at Mapungubwe.” §REF§ (Erlank 2005; 701) Natasha Erlank, “Iron Age (Later): Southern Africa: Toutswemogala, Cattle, and Political Power,” in Encyclopedia of African History Vol. 2, ed. Kevin Shillington (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005): 701-702. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 310, "polity": { "id": 624, "name": "zi_great_zimbabwe", "long_name": "Great Zimbabwe", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1300, "peak_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "Identified by Pikirayi as the period during which the capital and political influence of Great Zimbabwe appears to have been at its largest and most successful. As with much of the information on the polity, this is primarily based on the archaeological record of the capital itself, and the period of greatest apparent size and construction. “By the 14th century it was at the helm of a political hierarchy controlling territory and a community equivalent to a state…. Great Zimbabwe only became important after the demise of Mapungubwe taking over the control of long-distance trade…. At its peak during the 14th century Great Zimbabwe occupied an area over 700ha, with population estimates of up to 20,000 people.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2006; 31-32) Innocent Pikirayi, “The Demise of Great Zimbabwe, AD 1420-1550: An Environmental Re-Appraisal,” in Cities in the World, 1500-2000 (Routledge, 2006): 31-47. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6Z64MQH4/collection §REF§ “Great Zimbabwe reached its peak during the 14th and 15th centuries when the erection of elaborate stone structures – evidently symbolizing prestige and status – was extended towards outlying areas. During its fluorescence, displaying elite residences, ritual centers, public forums, markets, houses of commoners and artisans, and with a population estimated at 18,000 inhabitants, it became the largest metropolis in southern Africa.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2013; 26-27) Innocent Pikirayi, “Great Zimbabwe in Historical Archaeology: Reconceptualizing Decline, Abandonment, and Reoccupation of an Ancient Polity, A.D. 1450-1900,” in Historical Archaeology Vol. 47, No. 1 (2013): 26-37. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/642PWKV7/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 311, "polity": { "id": 625, "name": "zi_torwa_rozvi", "long_name": "Torwa-Rozvi", "start_year": 1494, "end_year": 1850 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1684, "peak_year_to": 1696, "comment": null, "description": "While during the Torwa period the polity remained relatively weaker than the Mutapa and their Portuguese allies, the polity reached its greatest strength in the initial years of Rozvi rule, up to the death of Changamire Dombo. “By around 1494 a dynasty called Torwa broke away and established itself in Guruuswa in the southwestern periphery of the state…. A political dispute occurred in the early 1640s in the area controlled by the Torwa; one of the Torwa rulers was defeated in a power struggle and forced to flee. The Portuguese intervened in this conflict by sending a small Portuguese army led by Sismundo Dias Bayao. This event is linked to the fall of Khami. The capital area shifted about 150 kilometers east, where the Torwa continued to rule until the early 1680s...//… After 1684 the Karanga, led by Dombo Changamire, replaced the Torwa dynasty. Their followers were called the Rozvi. Dombo Changamire founded a powerful state whose influence reached the areas formerly controlled by the Mutapa State such as Mukaranga, Mbire, and Manyika. Information about Dombo Changamire is sketchy but historical sources suggest he was a descendant of one the Torwa leaders who built his political career through cattle wealth…//… The succession disputes that occurred after the death of Dombo Changamire undermined the power of the state. Many Rozvi migrated elsewhere, with some setting up chiefdoms in the areas they subsequently settled…. [a son of Dombo] crossed the Limpopo River and conquered the territory of the Venda… in the Zoutpansberg. This is the Thovhela State that is mentioned by the Dutch traders based at Delagoa Bay (c.1730)…. Torwa-Rozvi rule lasted almost 400 years in southwestern Zimbabwe. The Rozvi declined following the arrival of the mfecane groups from the south of the Limpopo. Direct attacks by the Sotho and Nguni and the subsequent Ndebele settlement saw the demise of the Rozvi in the 1850s.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2005, 1573) Innocent Pikirayi, “Torwa, Changamire Dombo, and the Rozvi,” in Encyclopaedia of African History Vol. 3, ed. Kevin Shillington (Chicago: Taylor & Francis, 2005): 1572-1573. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/item-details §REF§.“Changamire II/Changamire Dombo of the 1670s-1696 was the true founder of the Rozvi state….” §REF§ (Machiridza 2008, 3) Lesley Machiridza, “Developing the Rozvi Archaeological Identity in Southwestern Zimbabwe,” in Zimbabwean Prehistory Vol. 28 (2008). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2XKVR72R/item-details §REF§." }, { "id": 312, "polity": { "id": 626, "name": "zi_mutapa", "long_name": "Mutapa", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1880 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1500, "peak_year_to": 1693, "comment": null, "description": "If measured in territorial terms, then these dates encompass the general period at which the Mutapa kingdom’s territorial size and power was at its greatest. While the state’s decline had begun during the 1600s the date of 1693 represents the point at which it was obviously – between a succession crisis, foreign intervention and the destruction of its Portuguese trade partners – being dismembered and surpassed in influence by other polities, and after which its decline was most evident. “From the early sixteenth century, the state controlled the northern limits of the Zimbabwe Plateau and the adjacent Zambezi lowlands.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2005, 1056) Innocent Pikirayi, “Mutapa State, 1450-1884,” in Encyclopedia of African History Vol. 2, ed. Kevin Shillington (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005): 1056-1058. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/collection §REF§ “The state went into decline in the seventeenth century, for a variety of reasons, including the presence of the Portuguese prazeiros (landowners) in the coastal interior and in the state capital. By playing one claimant to the Mutapa throne against another, they progressively weakened the state…. Meanwhile, in the succession crisis following the death of Mukombwe in 1693, the demise of the Mutapa state was hastened when Changamire Dombo backed one side while the Portuguese backed the other. In the ensuing armed conflict, Dombo overran the Portuguese fair of Dambarare, killing all Portuguese traders in it, capturing the gold-rich Manyika territory and becoming the undisputed power in the subregion.” §REF§ (Mlambo 2014, 22-23) Alois Mlambo, A History of Zimbabwe (New York, Cambridge University Press: 2014). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/IMR6WQ6M/item-details §REF§" }, { "id": 313, "polity": { "id": 627, "name": "in_pandya_emp_3", "long_name": "Pandya Empire", "start_year": 1216, "end_year": 1323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1250, "peak_year_to": 1272, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Pandyans dominated the north of Sri Lanka as they did the south in the second half of the thirteenth century under Jalavarman Sundara Pandya (1251-72).\" §REF§(Peebles 2006: 31) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 314, "polity": { "id": 630, "name": "sl_polonnaruva", "long_name": "Polonnaruwa", "start_year": 1070, "end_year": 1255 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1187, "peak_year_to": 1196, "comment": null, "description": "“With Parārkramabāhu I the great period of artistic activity of Polonnaruva began, and was continued under Niśśaṅka Malla during the brief decade (1187-96) of order and stability which his reign represented during which Polonnaruva reached the zenith of its development as a capital city.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 75) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 315, "polity": { "id": 636, "name": "et_jimma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma", "start_year": 1790, "end_year": 1932 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1830, "peak_year_to": 1855, "comment": null, "description": "“About 1830 Sanna Abba Jifar succeeded in uniting many of the Jimma Galla under his rule as king of Jimma-Kakka, known also as Jimma Abba Jifar [...] In a number of clashes in the late 1830s and 1840s Jimma defeated its neighbours on all sides, including Innarya itself. When Abba Jifar died in 1855, Jimma was by far the most powerful state of the region.” §REF§ (Rubenson 2008, 85) Rubenson, Sven. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c.1790 – c.1870. Edited by John E. Flint. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Sven/titleCreatorYear/items/VRU64Q8P/item-list §REF§" }, { "id": 316, "polity": { "id": 637, "name": "so_adal_sultanate", "long_name": "Adal Sultanate", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1400, "peak_year_to": 1543, "comment": null, "description": "It was not until the last quarter of the 14th century that Adal Sultanate formed. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 149) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ After a decisive military loss and the death of the ruler imam Ahmad Gurey, the Adal Sultanate was absorbed into other kingdoms. “From 1529 to 1542, he conquered almost all of Ethiopia, but in 1543 his armies were defeated by the allied Ethiopian-Portuguese forces and retreated and finally dispersed. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 45) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list §REF§" } ] }