Polity Peak Years List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Peak Years.
GET /api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 302, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 125, "peak_year_to": 125, "comment": null, "description": "In this period large regional settlements expanded further. This nucleated settlement pattern is the result of the migration of people from smaller satellite settlements to larger regional centres§REF§K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 183.§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1068, "peak_year_to": 1068, "comment": null, "description": "Under Ibrahim Tamghach Khan \"We may assume that substantial sums flowed into the coffers of the central government. This was one of the factors underpinning the considerable building activity that took place.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 137) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>During the reign of Ibrahim \"a single system of coinage with different denominations circulated throughout the Western Karakhanid Khanate, creating good, stable market conditions.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 136) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1150, "peak_year_to": 1220, "comment": null, "description": " 'Jayavarman VII’s reign, between the late 12th and early 13th centuries, is regarded as the climax of the empire.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 27)§REF§ 'Angkor was the capital of a vast medieval empire that incorporated most of mainland Southeast Asia at its zenith in the 12/13th centuries AD'§REF§(Penny et al. 2007, 387)§REF§. 'The new surveys show that, at its peak (about ad 1100-1300), Angkor was probably the world’s most extensive low-density city, covering 1,000 square kilometres and with half a million or more inhabitants.' §REF§(Diamond 2009, p.479)§REF§ 'The temple of Angkor Wat was built during the height of Cambodian political power, during the reign of King Suyavarman II (r. 1113-ca. 1150).'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.9)§REF§ 'Angkor under Suyavarman [II] was at the peak of its glory. The institutional reforms of Rajendravarman were secure, giving a measure of centralisation to the administration of the empire.§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.105)§REF§ 'The history of the Khmer empire from its vague and possibility fictitious beginnings in the centres of Funan and Chen-la to its apogee from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, and decline thereafter, is beyond the scope of this present work.'§REF§(Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 7)§REF§ 'An analysis, albeit not universally accepted, of the Great Lake in Cambodia argues that in Angkor’s heyday, c. 1000-1300, it held considerably more water than in later periods.52'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 105)§REF§ 'Angkorean power reached its greatest height during the reign of Jayavarman VII (r. 1181-c. 1218). His capital was Angkor, at the centre of which was Bayon, a huge pyramidical temple and one of more than 900 Buddhist temples built by Khmer rulers from the 9th century onwards.'§REF§(O'Brien 2007, p. 64)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 900, "peak_year_to": 900, "comment": null, "description": " Peak of territorial expanse.§REF§(TimeMap Project, University of Sydney, Australia, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://sydney.edu.au/arts/timemap/images/content/timemap/examples/2003_03_khmer_animation.swf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://sydney.edu.au/arts/timemap/images/content/timemap/examples/2003_03_khmer_animation.swf</a>)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1220, "peak_year_to": 1353, "comment": null, "description": " “The culmination of Angkor's image-destruction occurred in 1353, when Thais overran Angkor from their capital of Ayutthaya. » §REF§(Dutt 1996, 224)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1400, "peak_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": " Peak of territorial expanse.§REF§(TimeMap Project, University of Sydney, Australia, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://sydney.edu.au/arts/timemap/images/content/timemap/examples/2003_03_khmer_animation.swf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://sydney.edu.au/arts/timemap/images/content/timemap/examples/2003_03_khmer_animation.swf</a>)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 650, "peak_year_to": 650, "comment": null, "description": " 'Originally a vassal of FUNAN, CHENLA during the seventh century not only asserted its independence but also dominated its former overlord.'§REF§(Ooi 2004, 11)§REF§ Jacques and Lafond (2007, 68) argue that Chenla was never a vassal of Funan.§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, 68)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 250, "peak_year_to": 514, "comment": null, "description": " 'During its heyday during the mid-third century, FUNAN dominated modern-day southern Vietnam, Cambodia, central Thailand, and northern West Malaysia'§REF§(Ooi 2004, p. 11)§REF§ 'At the height of its power in the mid-third century, Funan is also thought to have controlled some of the major ports on the Malay Peninsula and to have been influential in the development of maritime trade between India and China.'§REF§(Southworth 2004, p. 529)§REF§ 'Fu-nan appears to have reached the peak of its fortunes sometime in the fourth century, prior to the instigation of a competitive, all-sea route from India to China that went through the Straits of Melaka.'§REF§(XXX 2008, p. 194)§REF§ 'The predecessors of Pre-Angkor and the Angkorian Empire, the trading centres in Funan, also said to be underpinned by rice surpluses (Fox and Ledgerwood 1999; Stark 2006: 100), reached their greatest prosperity in the mid 3rd century, with Chinese envoys noting their wealth.'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 82)§REF§ '478-514 Funan is at its geographic, political, and economic zenith under the reign of King Jayavarman.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 223)§REF§ 'The Kingdom of Funan reaches its height during the rule of Fan Shih-Man, extending from contemporary Malaysia to Burma.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 141)§REF§ 'Jayavarman is also known for having reigned over Funan during the kingdom’s period of greatest strength and size in the late fifth-early sixth centuries. Indeed in 502 after sending tribute to the Chinese court, including a Buddha statue made of coral, Jayavarman succeeded his son Fan Tang as “General of the Pacified South”; as general Jayavarman sent more tribute to the Chinese court in 511 and 514.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 224)§REF§" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 450, "peak_year_to": 650, "comment": null, "description": " 'The site of Nen Chua is located on the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. It dates to the period when the maritime state of FUNAN flourished on the basis of widespread trade relations linking China with Rome. [...] The radiocarbon dates from this site suggest occupation in the period 450-650 C.E.'" }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -570, "peak_year_to": -570, "comment": null, "description": " This date is speculative, but comes right before the conquest of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar. It is thought by some§REF§Markoe (2000:54).§REF§ that Carthage and other Mediterranean colonies were able to split away from Tyrian control at this point, though they still paid regular tribute per their treaty obligations. Though Phoenicia as a whole remained prosperous, especially during the Persian era, the power and influence of Levantine Phoenicia over their colonies seems to have declined.<br>" }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1578, "peak_year_to": 1603, "comment": null, "description": " Morocco conquered the Niger Inland Delta in 1591§REF§M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232§REF§ The reign of Ahmad Al-Mansur was characterised by internal stability, greater prosperity (due to the revival of the sugar industry), lack of external threat (due to Morocco's decisive victory against Portugal in the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578), and territorial expansion (most notably, in the Niger Inland Delta)§REF§M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232§REF§. Moreover, at this time a number of prominent Islamic scholars produced important works--most notably, Ahmad Baba wrote a collection of biographies on medieval Islamic scholars, and a seminal legal treaty on legal issues surrounding slavery§REF§N. Creighton, Ahmad Baba al-Massufi al-Tinbukti, in E.K. Akyeampong and H.L. Gates, Jr. (eds), Dictionary of African Biography (2012), pp. 124-125§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1800, "peak_year_to": 1800, "comment": null, "description": " 1712-1755; 1766-1790; 1792-1808 Biton Coulibaly (1712-1755), Ngolo Diarra (1766-1790) are both described as \"strong figures\", exceptions in a sequence of weak rulers; and Monson Diarra (1792-1808), too, \"made the power of Segu felt from San to Timbuktu and from the land of the Dogon to Kaarta\"§REF§M. Izard and J. Ki-Zerbo, From the Niger to the Volta, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 327-367§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 49, "peak_year_to": 49, "comment": null, "description": " 50 CE based on linear development progression at this low level of complexity.<br>\"Jenne-jeno's floruit: 450-1100 C.E.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 399, "peak_year_to": 399, "comment": null, "description": "\"Jenne-jeno's floruit: 450-1100 C.E.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 899, "peak_year_to": 899, "comment": null, "description": "Phase III: 400-900 CE. Urban expansion. apogee 750-1150 CE. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§<br>\"Jenne-jeno's floruit: 450-1100 C.E.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§<br>\"Jenne-jeno's floruit between 800-1000 C.E.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1100, "peak_year_to": 1100, "comment": null, "description": "\"Jenne-jeno's floruit: 450-1100 C.E.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§<br>\"Jenne-jeno's floruit between 800-1000 C.E.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§<br>After 1180 CE \"Jenne-jeno begins a 200-year long period of decline and gradual abandonment, before it becomes a ghost town by 1400.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§<br>Decline of Jenne-Jeno accompanied the rise of the new city of Djenne (the modern town, established \"much earlier\" than 1100 CE§REF§McIntosh, Roderick. McIntosh, Susan. \"Results of recent excavations at Jenné-jeno and Djenné, Mali\" in Sanogo, K. Togola, T. 2004. Proceedings of the Eleventh Congress of the Pan-African Association for Prehistory and Related Fields. Institut des Sciences Humaines. Bamako. pp. 469-481.§REF§). We could hypothesize that Djenne started out as a political, military and ritual center which controlled the economic center at Jenne-Jeno, until Djenne took that over itself. However, this is my speculation. R and S McIntosh says \"Analyses conducted thus far have not yielded any information on the possible reasons for the new settlement at Djenné.\"§REF§McIntosh, Roderick. McIntosh, Susan. \"Results of recent excavations at Jenné-jeno and Djenné, Mali\" in Sanogo, K. Togola, T. 2004. Proceedings of the Eleventh Congress of the Pan-African Association for Prehistory and Related Fields. Institut des Sciences Humaines. Bamako. pp. 469-481.§REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1312, "peak_year_to": 1337, "comment": null, "description": " Under Mansa Musa (1307-32 CE) §REF§(Niane 1984, 147)§REF§<br>Mansa Musa reigned 1312-1337 CE. \"His 25-year reign, from 1312 to 1337, is thought of as the golden age of Mali.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 45)§REF§" }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1650, "peak_year_to": 1680, "comment": null, "description": " Central power decreased after the death of Kaladian Coulibaly§REF§K.C. MacDonald, <i>A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois</i>: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins, in F.G. Richard and K.C. MacDonald, Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities (2014), pp. 119-144§REF§." }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1550, "peak_year_to": 1550, "comment": null, "description": "According to Kati, Askia Bunkan (1531-1537 CE) embellished court life: 'He increased the number of orchestras and singers of both sexes and lavished more favors and gifts. During his reign prosperity spread throughout his empire and an era of wealth began to be established.'§REF§(Diop 1987, 80) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§<br>Songhai height in the 16th century §REF§(Conrad 2010, 72)§REF§<br>Askia Daud (r.1549-1582 CE) \"was widely praised for memorizing the Quran and for supporting learning and religion. As part of this support, he is said to have established public libraries in his kingdom.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 69)§REF§" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1251, "peak_year_to": 1259, "comment": null, "description": " The reign of Möngke saw Mongol rule at its most unified and including all of China, the South-east Asia peninsula, in addition to large parts of the Islamic world, India, and Europe. §REF§Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p.78.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1206, "peak_year_to": 1206, "comment": null, "description": " The date of Kurultai when Chinggiz created the Empire.<br>" }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 402, "peak_year_to": 429, "comment": null, "description": " [402-429 CE]; [521-552 CE] \"Two main peaks of Rouran might may be pinpointed: (a) the initial ascent during the reign of Shelun, the founder of the empire, and his immediate successors in 402-429, and (b) the rise and progress of the process of Sinicisation under the rule of Anagui in 521-552.\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 156)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 691, "peak_year_to": 716, "comment": null, "description": " \"In 691 Ilterish kaghan died and was succeeded by his younger brother, who assumed the title Kapagan kaghan (‘Conquering kaghan’; Mo-ch’o in Chinese sources). His reign (691-716) marked the apogee of the military and political might of the Second Türk Empire - and the beginning of its decline.\" §REF§(Klyashtorny 1996, 333)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 155, "peak_year_to": 155, "comment": null, "description": " \"The Xianbei were another polity from northeast China, with origins closely related ethnically and linguistically to the Wuhuan. By A.D. 155 the Xianbei had eclipsed the Wuhuan and were poised to fill the gap left by the fall of the Xiongnu polity.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 222-223)§REF§ \"Subsequent to the death of Tanshikhuai, his brother came to power, followed by a nephew, and then an unrelated leader (Kebineng), but unity was ephemeral and by A.D. 235 the Xianbei broke into a series of smaller polities, eventually reemerging as the Toba (northern) Wei polity.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1679, "peak_year_to": 1745, "comment": null, "description": " \"Galdan had been subjugating Mongol tribes since the 1670s, taking control of all of eastern Turkestan by 1679.\" §REF§(Lorge 2005, 161)§REF§ \"In sum, competition with the Qing state drove the Zunghars to undertake significant steps toward “self-strengthening.” Like many earlier nomadic empires, they established cities, developed agriculture, fostered trade, and generated tax revenues, but the primary motivation was not “as- similation” to settled societies’ customs but mobilization of resources for defense. Internal upheaval after the death of Galdan Tseren in 1745, however, curtailed these investments.\" §REF§(Perdue 2005, 307)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1025, "peak_year_to": 1050, "comment": null, "description": "\"Ghana reached its height in the early 11th century.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 24)§REF§<br>At this time Awdaghust was a rich commercial city. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 31)§REF§<br>Ghana/Soninke \"took control\" of Awdahust in the mid-11th century. \"The Zanata traders of the city accepted Soninke authority.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 33)§REF§ Previously city de facto controlled by Sanhaja berbers.<br>Sanhaja berbers recapture Awdaghust as Almoravid dynasty §REF§(Conrad 2010, 33)§REF§ from 1054-c1100 CE<br>\"About 1050 ... Ghana at heigh of its power.\"§REF§(Davidson 1998, 34) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -100, "peak_year_to": -100, "comment": null, "description": " Monte Albán gained more territory throughout this period, so the peak date has been coded as the end of the Monte Albán Late I phase.<br>" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -200, "peak_year_to": -200, "comment": null, "description": " The end of the period is coded here, as by this point the Zapotecs had conquered the most territory both within and outside of the Valley of Oaxaca.§REF§Balkansky, A. K. (1998). \"Origin and collapse of complex societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the era from 1965 to the present.\" Journal of World Prehistory 12(4): 451-493, p462§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -200, "peak_year_to": -200, "comment": null, "description": " This peak date c. 200 BCE was chosen because it corresponds to the end of the Late Formative period (alternatively called \"First Intermediate Period 2\"), when most sub-regional clusters in the MxFormL quasi-polity reach their demographic maximum -- and are still thought to have been mostly politically independent.§REF§Steponaitis, V. P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2), 320-363.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 98-105.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§§REF§Brumfiel, Elizabeth. (1976). \"Regional growth in the Eastern Valley of Mexico: A test of the “Population Pressure” hypothesis.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 234-249.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -650, "peak_year_to": -650, "comment": null, "description": " Archaeological record suggests essentially continuous political, economic, and demographic development from start date to end date.§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1996). \"The Basin of Mexico: Multimillenial Development toward Cultural Complexity.\" In <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, edited by Emily P. Benson and Beatriz de la Fuente. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 83-93.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§" }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1150, "peak_year_to": -850, "comment": null, "description": " It has been suggested that the Guadalupe phase was a ‘winding down’ of social complexity compared to the preceeding San José phase.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p13§REF§ The peak dates have therefore been coded as relating to the San José phase.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p12§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1400, "peak_year_to": -1150, "comment": null, "description": " The date range given here corresponds to the whole Tierras Largas phase as there was no discernible peak date.<br>" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 600, "peak_year_to": 600, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1250, "peak_year_to": 1250, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1400, "peak_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 200, "peak_year_to": 200, "comment": null, "description": "Since the level of complexity is thought to be low and gradual development occurred throughout the period, a date late in the period may coincide with the greatest level of social complexity.<br>" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1525, "peak_year_to": 1525, "comment": null, "description": "\"If factionalism and fraternal rivalry were symptomatic of Inka succession, scholars must rethink the trajectory of the Inka polity. Many writers see the civil war between Atawallpa and Waskhar as evidence that the Inka were incapable of governing their large empire effectively over the long term. ... Based on comparisons with other states and empires, there is no reason to believe that the Inka empire was in permanent decline in 1532.\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 194)§REF§<br>Central Cuzco almost completely razed by fire during an Inca siege of the Spanish held city in 1536 CE. §REF§(Bauer 2004, 107)§REF§" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 800, "peak_year_to": 800, "comment": null, "description": "Rapid expansion into empire from mid-eighth century. §REF§(Jennings and Bergh in Bergh 2012, 23 cite: Schreiber)§REF§ City of Wari: height of influence 700-800 CE. §REF§(Bauer 2004, 56)§REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1921, "peak_year_to": 1942, "comment": null, "description": " In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the island of New Guinea was controlled by competing colonial powers: 'In response to Australian pressure, the British government annexed Papua in 1888. Gold was discovered shortly thereafter, resulting in a major movement of prospectors and miners to what was then the Northern District. Relations with the Papuans were bad from the start, and there were numerous killings on both sides. The Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory by the passing of the Papua Act of 1905 by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The new administration adopted a policy of peaceful penetration, and many measures of social and economic national development were introduced. Local control was in the hands of village constables, paid servants of the Crown. Chosen by European officers, they were intermediaries between the government and the people.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ Economic development, resource exploitation, and political consolidation peaked in the decades before World War II: 'Capt. John Moresby of Great Britain surveyed the southeastern coast in the 1870s, and by the 1880s European planters had moved onto New Britain and New Ireland. By 1884 the German New Guinea Company was administering the northeastern quadrant, and a British protectorate was declared over the southeastern quadrant. Despite early gold finds in British New Guinea (which from 1906 was administered by Australia as the colony of Papua), it was in German New Guinea, administered by the German imperial government after 1899, that most early economic activity took place. Plantations were widely established in the New Guinea islands and around Madang, and labourers were transported from the Sepik River region, the Markham valley, and Buka Island. Australian forces displaced the German authorities on New Guinea early in World War I, and the arrangement was formalized in 1921, when Australian control of the northeastern quadrant of the island was mandated by the League of Nations. This territory remained administratively separate from Papua, where the protective paternalist policies of Sir Hubert Murray (lieutenant governor of Papua, 1908-40) did little to encourage colonial investment. The discovery in the 1920s of massive gold deposits in eastern New Guinea at the Bulolo River (a tributary of the Markham River) and Edie Creek, near Wau, led to a rush of activity that greatly increased the economic and social impact on the mandated territory compared with those in Papua to the south. In the early 1930s an even greater discovery was made-contact with nearly one million people previously unknown to Europeans who were living in the Highlands basins of the Australian mandate. During World War II the Japanese army invaded northern New Guinea in early 1942 and took the territorial headquarters in Rabaul. The Japanese were defeated by the Allies (primarily Australian troops) in the Battle of Milne Bay (August-September 1942) in eastern Papua but advanced along the rugged Kokoda Trail almost to the Papuan headquarters at Port Moresby before being pushed back over the mountains, again by Australian troops. The Allied victory in the Battle of the Coral Sea, southwest of the Solomon Islands, saved Port Moresby from a planned Japanese seaborne invasion. U.S. forces then moved quickly north and west across the island chain toward Borneo and beyond. Meanwhile, Australian troops continued a costly war on Bougainville Island and the New Guinea mainland until the Japanese surrender in August 1945.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -155, "peak_year_to": -130, "comment": null, "description": " greatest territorial extent. §REF§Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 985, "peak_year_to": 985, "comment": null, "description": " Height of Fatimid influence. §REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 200§REF§" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1486, "peak_year_to": 1486, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp. 109-110§REF§<br>The reason this was selected for as a peak date is that is coincides with a military campaigns northward. The evidence is very scarce, and seems to rely on hagiography of the king ruling at the time, but the borders of Sind seem to have advanced into Multan in the north and into parts of Baluchistan.<br>" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -2500, "peak_year_to": -2100, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -2100, "peak_year_to": -1800, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1850, "peak_year_to": 1900, "comment": null, "description": " During the Russian period, Czarist administrative and political control was established over Sakha territory: 'By 1642 the Lena valley was under tribute to the czar; peace was won only after a long siege of a formidable Yakut fortress. By 1700 the fort settlement of Yakutsk (founded 1632) was a bustling Russian administrative, commercial, and religious center and a launching point for further exploration into Kamchatka and Chukotka. Some Yakut moved northeast into territories they had previously not dominated, further assimilating the Evenk and Yukagir. Most Yakut, however, remained in the central meadowlands, sometimes assimilating Russians. Yakut leaders cooperated with Russian commanders and governors, becoming active in trade, fur-tax collection, transport, and the postal system. Fighting among Yakut communities decreased, although horse rustling and occasional anti-Russian violence continued. For example, a Yakut Robin Hood named Manchari led a band that stole from the rich (usually Russians) to give to the poor (usually Yakut) in the nineteenth century. Russian Orthodox priests spread through Yakutia, but their followers were mainly in the major towns. By 1900 a literate Yakut intelligentsia, influenced both by Russian merchants and political exiles, formed a party called the Yakut Union. Yakut revolutionaries such as Oiunskii and Ammosov led the Revolution and civil war in Yakutia, along with Bolsheviks such as the Georgian Ordzhonikidze.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ Given the importance of increasing 'modernization' for the revolutionary developments of the early 20th century, the peak period should be identified with the latter half of the 19th century.<br>" }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -663, "peak_year_to": -663, "comment": null, "description": " Taharqa (690-664 BCE). §REF§(Mokhtar ed. 1981, 281)§REF§ Also date of peak territory prior to the capture of Thebes by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.<br>" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 724, "peak_year_to": 724, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1733, "peak_year_to": 1758, "comment": null, "description": " The reign of Borommakot. \"To a generation that, in the 1780s and 1790s, was looking back at Ayudhya, the reign of Borommakot must have seemed a sort of golden age, an ideal to be recaptured. There was much about Borommakot's reign that accorded with traditional ideas of the virtues of good kings and so won him acclaim\". During Borommakot's reign, Ayutthaya succeeded Ceylon as \"the preeminent center of Buddhism\" (\"a party of eighteen Siamese monks was dispatched to Kandy to reordain Singhalese monks and establish what was to become a Siam order of monks on Ceylon\", in response to a 1751 mission \"from Ceylon requesting aid in restoring Singhalese Buddhism, which had declined under Portuguese and Dutch rule\"). Moreover, Ayutthaya consolidated its control over Cambodia, and established peaceful relations with Burma. \"To the end of the reign, Ayudhya faced no serious external threats, and there was no military <i>levée en masse</i>.\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, pp. 130-131)§REF§" }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1793, "peak_year_to": 1810, "comment": null, "description": " The reign of Rama I, after the Thai-Burmese wars of 1785-1793. \"By the turn of the century, then, we might conclude that Rama I's Siam was settling down as a stable, enduring empire, at least in the minds of those who lived within its compass. Economically, a profitable trade with China was developing, involving mainly the exchange of Siamese surplus rice production for Chinese luxury goods and crockery (and indeterminate amounts of copper and silver). Bangkok prospered on the growth of his trade\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. 154)§REF§. Moreover, \"[i]t was a period notable for its cosmopolitan literary taste, a period when a wide range of classics was translated from other Asian languages, and, in a sense, appropriated as part of Siamese literary tradition\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. 154)§REF§. Finally, \"even Siam's tributary states seemed willing subordinates in a Bangkok-centred world\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. 155)§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 996, "peak_year_to": 996, "comment": null, "description": "\"At the peak of their power, their empire spanned Egypt, north Africa (present day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya), Syria, Palestine, Yemen, the Arabian Peninsula, parts of Iraq, Sicily, and north-western India with additional covert cells in Byzantine and central Asian lands.\"§REF§(Qutbuddin 2011, 37) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§<br>\"Under al-Mu'zz's son and successor, al-'Aziz (d. 386/996), court life flourished and the Fatimid dynasty (dawla) reached its political, territorial and economic zenith.\"§REF§(Cortese and Calderini 2006, 18) Cortese, Delia. Calderini, Simonetta. 2006. Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>Fatimid power at peak during early years of the reign of al-Mustansir (1036-1094 CE), although \"first signs of the empire's fragile character\" 1021-1036 CE under Caliph al-Zahir. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 14-15)§REF§<br>The Mustansir Crisis. Devastating famine from 1065 CE which peaked 1070 CE with cannibalism and emigration of Jewish minority between 1060-1090 CE. However, a \"spectacular recovery\" followed Badr al-Jamali's appointment as minister 1073 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 71)§REF§" } ] }