Polity Peak Years List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Peak Years.
GET /api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 302, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1792, "peak_year_to": -1750, "comment": null, "description": " Reign of Hammurabi. Before his ascension to the throne, Babylon was one of several petty states of fluctuating importance. By the end of his reign he had gained control of most of Babylonia, taken the old title of King of Sumer and Akkad, and had, for a brief time, taken over Assyria. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 342, "name": "iq_babylonia_2", "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia", "start_year": -1595, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1359, "peak_year_to": -1333, "comment": null, "description": " These dates describe the reign of Burna-Buriash II. At this time \"the Kassite dynasty ranked among the major powers of the Near East\", the Amarna letters describe describe \"diplomatics marriages and large scale trade\" between the Kassites and Egypt, the super-power of the time. §REF§Stein, D. L. 1997. Kassites. In Meyers, E. M. (ed.) The Oxford Encylopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.271-272.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1005, "peak_year_to": -989, "comment": null, "description": " \"Eulmash-shakin-shumi (1004-988), founder of the dynasty, came to the throne during this turbulent period characterized by famine and Aramaean invasions. [...] After the death of Eulmash-shakin-shumi, the Bazi dynasty lasted for only three more years. Two brothers ruled successively: Ninurta- kudurri-usur I (987-985) and Shirikti-Shuqamuna (985, for three months only).\"§REF§(Brinkman, 297) Brinkman, J.A. 1982. “Babylonia.” In <i>The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C.</i>, edited by John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, N.G.L. Hammond, and E. Sollberger, 282-312. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3</a>.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1119, "peak_year_to": -1098, "comment": null, "description": " \"The definitive removal of the Elamite threat from the Mesopotamian territories happened during the reign of the most important king of the dynasty, Nebuchadnezzar I.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 462) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -668, "peak_year_to": -668, "comment": null, "description": " Map 627 BCE. §REF§(Wawro 2008, 55)§REF§ 745-626 BCE. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 27)§REF§ Zenith at start of reign of Assurbanipal (668-627 BCE), collapse at end of it. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 86)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -604, "peak_year_to": -562, "comment": null, "description": " Reign of Nebuchadrezzar who defeated the Egyptians in Syria and successfully beseiged Jerusalem §REF§Oates, J. 1986. Babylon. London: Thames & Hudson. p.128-130§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -5000, "peak_year_to": -4000, "comment": null, "description": " During the period of Ubaid 3-4, there was noticed both geographical and cultural expansion of the Ubaid polity.§REF§Peasnal 2001, 372§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -2097, "peak_year_to": -2038, "comment": null, "description": " the peak time is related to ruling of two kings: Shulgi and his son Amarsin§REF§Roux 1998, 146§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -3200, "peak_year_to": -3050, "comment": null, "description": " Late Uruk period is a time of cultural, social and territorial expansion, however the beginning of the Uruk expansion is dated to Early Middle Uruk - 3700 BCE.§REF§Rothman 2014, 93§REF§§REF§Sundsdal 2011, 164§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -500, "peak_year_to": -500, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1453, "peak_year_to": 1478, "comment": null, "description": "Under Qara Otman 1398 CE the Ak Koyunlu gained more territory, support from more tribes, better relations with Christian sedentary peoples, and he \"had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>\"The Āq Qoyunlu empire reached its zenith under Uzun Ḥasan. He was the first of their rulers to declare himself an independent sultan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§ r. c1453-1478 CE." }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 983, "peak_year_to": 983, "comment": null, "description": " The reign of Adud al-Duala from his take over of the Baghdad arm of the state, to his death. The Daylam state was nearly unified under one leader . Adud al-Duala was the first to term himself Shahanshah, King of Kings. §REF§Katouzian, H. 2009. The Persians: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Iran. London: Yale University Press. p.87§REF§<br>\"Buyid history can be chronologically divided, roughly, into two divisions. The first half-century, up to the death of Adud al-Dawla, greatest of the Buyid rulers, in 372/983, is one of growth and consolidation when the political initiative was firmly in the hands of the princes of the ruling dynasty. From that point, however, the Buyids were on the defensive, especially in Iraq and central Iran, and political initiative passed to the hands of groups of soldiers and administrators who strove to manipulate their nominal rulers in their own interests.\" §REF§(Kennedy 2004, 215) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§<br>Adud al-Dawla's \"rule in Fars was something of a golden age for the province as Adud al-Dawla made it the basis for his imperial schemes and, realizingthat the prosperity of the area was fundamental to his plans, took active steps to encourage both agriculture and trade.\"§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 230) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 100, "peak_year_to": 100, "comment": null, "description": "From an analysis of hundreds of coins found at Susa which had come from mints at Seleucia-on-the-Tigris, Spasinu Charax and elsewhere, he suggests that \"Susa grew wealthy between about A.D. 40 and A.D. 125 through its role as agent and supplier to these land and sea trade routes. But after A.D. 107/8, there was a sharp decline in the number of coins from other cities in circulation in Susa, at least insofar as they are represented in the finds at Susa, and Le Rider interprets this as a reflection of the decline in Susa's commercial importance.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"Trajan's advance sparked revolts in numerous cities in Mesopotamia, and it may be that shock waves from these events reached Susa also, because, as noted, there seems to have been a rapid decline in commercial activity and a cessation of the mint at Susa at about this time. Yet when Trajan died in Mesopotamia in A.D. 117 and his successors declined to pursue Roman interests there, Susa and the rest of Elymais seem - at least on the basis of numismatic evidence - to have been unable or unwilling to resume their independent roles.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 310) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"decline of Susa as a commercial capital after about A.D. 100\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 313) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1316, "peak_year_to": 1316, "comment": null, "description": "During the reign of Ḡāzān the Il-khanate entered \"a new and dynamic era\" §REF§REUVEN AMITAI, 'IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a>§REF§<br>However, it was Abu Said, whose reign began in 1316 CE, who \"ruled during what was described as the 'best period of the domination of the Mongols'. The economy boomed, a treaty was negotiated with the Mamluks and Persia looked forward to peace and prosperity.\"§REF§(Marshall 1993, 229) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press.§REF§<br>The Ilkhanate \"fell without in any real sense having previously declined. Why was this? ... The crucial reason is a simple one: Abu Said left no heir. ... the direct line of Hulegu had failed. ... None was able to gain control of the whole Ilkanate legacy. Of the factions the most notable, ultimately, were the Jalayirids, who built up a strong position in Iraq and Azabaijan which survived into the fifteenth century.\"§REF§(Morgan 2015, 78) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1158, "peak_year_to": -1158, "comment": null, "description": " Shutruk-Nahhunte invaded Babylonia and overthrew the Kassite king Zababa-shuma-iddina in this year and probably gave the throne to his son Kutir-Nahhunte. He bought a lot of bounty back to Elam after the battle, including the victory stele of Naram-Sin and probably the Law Code of Hammurabi. §REF§Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.233§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1300, "peak_year_to": -1300, "comment": null, "description": " \"The 'golden age' of the united federal Elam was toward the end of the second millennium B.C., when, after a period of decline, the empire enjoyed a renaissance of power and achievement in arts and architectures; one of the federated states, Kassite, conquered and ruled Babylonia for 567 years, and Elam expanded to almost all of Mesopotamia and Asia Minor\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"At the same time as the rise of the Middle Assyrian state, the Middle Elamite state grew under Humban-nimena, Untash-Humban, Unpater-Humban and Kidin-Hutran. Internally, the most influential Elamite king was Untash-Humban, who founded the city of Dur-Untash (Choga Zanbil, south-east of Susa). Dur-Untash was a small city, but certainly an important religious centre, with a ziqqurat that could have been completed with the Babylonian ones and a rich set of temples and public buildings ... Therefore, Elam was clearly influenced by the tendencies of the time ... founding royal residences and artificial capitals ex novo.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 377) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ -- <i>c1350 BCE</i><br>reign date?<br>\"the reign of Untash-Humban constituted the apogee of the Middle Elamite period.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 377) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1158, "peak_year_to": -1158, "comment": null, "description": " Shutruk-Nahhunte invaded Babylonia and overthrew the Kassite king Zababa-shuma-iddina in this year and probably gave the throne to his son Kutir-Nahhunte. He bought a lot of bounty back to Elam after the battle, including the victory stele of Naram-Sin and probably the Law Code of Hammurabi. §REF§Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.233§REF§<br>\"Elam reached the peak of its power in the twelfth century BC\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 458) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The Middle Elamite apogee is marked by the intense building activities of Shilhak-Inshushinak, especially in Susa.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 460) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Tall-i Malyan, the main centre of eastern Elam (Anshan) ... collapsed after the Middle Elamite period.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 527) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -743, "peak_year_to": -717, "comment": null, "description": " Reign of Humban-nikash I, considered the most stable period of an otherwise unstable kingdom. Sources disagree as to his success: the Assyrian's claim it as a victory for themselves, while the Babylonians claim victory for Humban-nikash I. Being the least invested in the outcome of the battle, the Babylonian source is generally believed. It suggests he beat the Assyrian's in battle which lead to a decade of peace. After his death royal political power appears to begin to diffuse to regional power. §REF§Carter, E. and Stopler, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Press. p.45§REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -120, "peak_year_to": -120, "comment": null, "description": "\"The first Parthian ruler, Arsaces, established the dynasty approximately 240 b.c.e. ... The real founder of the Parthian empire was Mithridates I, who ascended the throne in 171. He conquered western Iran, reaching Media in 155 and Seleucia in 141. ... the Parthians definitely established their hold on Babylonia by the time of Mithridates II, ca. 120 b.c.e. and held it until ca. 226 c.e., with brief intervals of Roman occupation.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 16) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>Period when the empire expanded under Mithridates I. §REF§Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), 174-195.§REF§ \"The geographical expansion of Parthia and the political consolidation of the early Parthian kingdom is associated with Mithradates (Mihrdad) I (c. 171-138 BCE).\"§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>\"Few rulers in Arsacid history were as distinguished as Mithradates I. During his reign, the Parthian state was transformed from an insignificant political center to a vast and mighty empire. The transformation was the fruit of his large-scale policy of expansion.\"§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 169) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ also known as Mithradates I the Great who reigned c171-132 BCE.<br>" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 50, "peak_year_to": 100, "comment": null, "description": "<i>Probably the early period of this chronology which coincides with urban expansion in Elymais?</i><br>" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1900, "peak_year_to": 1900, "comment": null, "description": "Once civil and government reforms had begun but before the civil disorder?<br>Tehran: \"A recent study has supplied more reliable numbers: 106,482 in 1883; 160,000 in 1891; 210,000 in 1922; and 310,000 in 1932.\"§REF§(Bosworth ed. 2007, 511) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1629, "peak_year_to": 1629, "comment": null, "description": " Reign of Shah Abbas I (1587-1629 CE). “Shah Abbas I (known as Shah Abbas the Great) has deservedly been considered the ruler who revived the political and military power of the Safavids.” §REF§E Eshraghi, ‘PERSIA DURING THE PERIOD OF THE SAFAVIDS, THE AFSHARS AND THE EARLY QAJARS’, in Chahryar Adle and Irfan Habib (eds), History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. V The Sixteenth to the Mid-Nineteenth Centuries (Paris: Unesco, 1992), p.257§REF§ \"Abbās I is universally regarded as the greatest Safavid ruler, the embodiment of the age-old Persian ideal of the just monarch.\" §REF§Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a>.§REF§ Under Abbas I \"military, political and economic stability.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>Iran’s role in the silk trade led to the forging of important diplomatic relations with European powers. The death of Abbas is usually seen as the beginning of the slow decline of Safavid rule; certainly by the end of the 17th century they were no longer a great military force and their administration had stagnated.§REF§Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a>; E Eshraghi, ‘PERSIA DURING THE PERIOD OF THE SAFAVIDS, THE AFSHARS AND THE EARLY QAJARS’, in Chahryar Adle and Irfan Habib (eds), History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. V The Sixteenth to the Mid-Nineteenth Centuries (Paris: Unesco, 1992)pp. 250-75.§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 309, "peak_year_to": 379, "comment": null, "description": " Long reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE). Peace and security within empire. §REF§(Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>'Secular' or king's power was probably at its height in the early fifth century.<br>\"first synod of the Nestorian Church was convened in 410\" during reign of Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE).§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon; he and the Jewish exilarch became responsible for their coreligionists.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 570, "peak_year_to": 570, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -281, "peak_year_to": -281, "comment": null, "description": " The range of dates given correspond with two main periods of the Seleucid Empire. The empire reached a peak in territory and population during the reign of it's first king, Seleucus I, when the empire took it's 'final form' §REF§Dreyer, B. 2011. How to Become a \"Relative\" of the King: Careers and Hierarchy at the court of Antiochus III. American Journal of Philology, 132 (1), pp. 45-57. p49§REF§. A second peak in territory and population size occurred during the reign of Antiochus III 'The Great' (223 BCE - 187 BCE), who reconquered lost territory and reaffirmed the status of the empire §REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p57.§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -190, "peak_year_to": -190, "comment": null, "description": " The range of dates given correspond with two main periods of the Seleucid Empire. The empire reached a peak in territory and population during the reign of it's first king, Seleucus I, when the empire took it's 'final form' §REF§Dreyer, B. 2011. How to Become a \"Relative\" of the King: Careers and Hierarchy at the court of Antiochus III. American Journal of Philology, 132 (1), pp. 45-57. p49§REF§. A second peak in territory and population size occurred during the reign of Antiochus III 'The Great' (223 BCE - 187 BCE), who reconquered lost territory and reaffirmed the status of the empire §REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p57.§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1092, "peak_year_to": 1092, "comment": null, "description": "The reign of Malik Shah ibn Alp Arslan 1072 to 1092. \"His reign marked the fullest expansion of the dynasty's power, characterized by thorough assimilation to Persian/Arabic Muslim culture. He administered territories in Iran, Iraq, and Syria with the assistance of the vizier (Abu Ali Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Ishaq) who held the title nizam al-mulk (order of the kingdom) and established theological schools (nizamiyyah) in major cities; the jurist and mystic al-Ghazali headed the one in Baghdad.\" §REF§Esposito, John L, ed., ‘Malik Shah Ibn Alp Arslan’, The Oxford dictionary of Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003)§REF§<br>\"The Seljuk empire reached its zenith under Toghril’s very capable nephew Alp Arslan (r. 1063-1073) and, after the murder of Alp Arslan in Khwarazm, under the latter’s son, Malikshah (r. 1073-1093).\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>\"The united Seljuq Empire was only to last until the 1090s. Subsequently, Seljuq power retreated to Iran, although a cadet branch of the Seljuq family was to rule Anatolia until 1243 (and thereafter as Mongol vassals until the early fourteenth century).\"§REF§(Amitai 2006, 53) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§<br>According to 'Imad al-Din al-Isfahani, Nizam al-Mulk as vizier \"made the provinces flourish and he built constantly.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 69) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1900, "peak_year_to": -1800, "comment": null, "description": " Tal-i Malyan expanded to 130 ha during Middle Kaftari (1900-1800 BC)§REF§(Potts 2016, 143) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 525, "peak_year_to": 525, "comment": null, "description": " \"Altogether we seem justified in asserting that the economic condition of Italy, both as to the producers and the consumers of its food-supplies, was more prosperous under Theodoric than it had been for centuries before, or than it was to be for centuries afterwards.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§ Bishop of Ravenna on Theodoric: \"He reigned thirty-three (really thirty-two) years, and during thirty of these years so great was the happiness of Italy that even the wayfarers were at peace. ... He gave presents and rations to the people, yet, though he found the Treasury ruined, he brought it round, by his own hard work, into a flourishing state. ... Thus he so charmed the nations near him that they entered into a league with him, hoping that he would be their King. The merchants, too, from diverse provinces, flocked to his dominions, for so great was the order which he maintained, that if any one wished to leave gold or silver on his land (in his country house) it was as safe as in a walled city. A proof of this was the fact that he never made gates for any-city of Italy, and the gates already existing were not closed. Any one who had business to transact could do it as safely by night as by day.\" §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§ \"the great economic symptom of Theodoric's reign--and under the circumstances a most healthy symptom--was that Italy, from a corn-importing became a corn-exporting country.\" §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1030, "peak_year_to": 1030, "comment": null, "description": " {1050 CE; 1010-1030 CE} The German Emperor Henry III, <i>de facto</i> guardian of the papacy and the Patrimony, granted the city of Benevento to Pope Leo IX.§REF§Kreutz, 151§REF§ This marked the definitive end of an independent polity centered on the city of Benevento, which had threatened the Patrimony for several centuries from the south (this Lombard menace, from north and south, was the original reason for the Frankish descent into Italy and the Frankish conquest of the Lombard Kingdom of Italy). It also was the furthest extent of (nominal) papal power until Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216) began consolidating what would become the Papal States.§REF§Kreutz, 152.§REF§ The period from 1036 to 1066 was characterized, however, by internal warfare and Salian invasions (despite the short-lived expansionist respite of 1049-1054 ending after Civitella). Thus, it could be argued that the real peak of the polity was under the Tusculan Reform Papacy c.1012-1036 CE because of internal and external stability, and socioeconomic and (even if limited) demographic expansion. For more, see <a href=\"https://seshatdatabank.info/browser/index.php?title=Latium:_Medieval_History_for_Demographic_Modeling,_904-1198_CE&action=edit&redlink=1\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: /browser/index.php?title=Latium:_Medieval_History_for_Demographic_Modeling,_904-1198_CE&action=edit&redlink=1 </a> <a href=\"https://seshatdatabank.info/browser/index.php?title=Latium:_Medieval_Era_(500-1500_CE)_--_Meso/Regional_Scale_Productive_System_Modeling_Issues&action=edit&redlink=1\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: /browser/index.php?title=Latium:_Medieval_Era_(500-1500_CE)_--_Meso/Regional_Scale_Productive_System_Modeling_Issues&action=edit&redlink=1 </a><br>" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1240, "peak_year_to": 1240, "comment": null, "description": " Innocent III was the king maker of Christendom (e.g. Frederick, in 1214 CE): \"In the eleventh century, emperors had appointed popes without consulting any Roman prelate. Now the pope had chosen an emperor.\" \"This was not the last \"political\" conflict, or victory, during Innocent's pontificate. Innocent was involved in disputes with King Philip II of France .... and with King John of England .... He won resounding victories in both cases. ... King John gave England as a fief to the papacy, and Philip was forced to choose Ingeborg as queen. In a short time, Innocent had twice chosen an emperor and won battles with the other two major states in western Europe, as well as victories over smaller states, like Portugal and Castile. To a greater degree than any pontiff before or since, Innocent achieved the dream of Gregory VII and became, in fact as well as in theory, the undisputed leader of Christendom.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 290) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§ \"If Gregory saw himself as the agent of Peter, with whom he had a sense of a powerfully intimate kinship, Innocent viewed himself explicitly as the vicar of Christ, priest and king, who possessed unrivaled temporal and religious authority.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 291)§REF§ \"Papal power and control had reached its height\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 297)§REF§ - context of discussion Louis IX of France c1240 CE (?).<br>" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1571, "peak_year_to": 1571, "comment": null, "description": " The sack of Rome in 1527 devastated Rome and marked a nadir in the fortunes of the Papal States. The papacy gradually rebuilt its power and prestige during the 16th century, with the onset of the Counter-Reformation. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648), ending the Thirty Years' War, was a symbolic turning point marking the eclipse of papal influence in the international affairs of Europe; the economy and demography of the Papal States, along with that of the rest of Italy, was also in marked decline by this point. 1571 CE was the year of the battle of Lepanto, in which the papally-inspired Holy League decisively defeated an Ottoman fleet in the largest naval battle in Mediterranean history.§REF§See Braudel, vol. II, 1027-44, for the diplomatic wrangling surrounding the creation of the Holy League§REF§ It marks a high point for the papacy in terms of international prestige. However, it does not necessarily mark the Papal States' peak economically or culturally, and papal prestige was internationally eclipsed during the seventeenth century due to its annexation of Urbino and the embarrassing War of Castro.§REF§Sella, 9-10§REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1750, "peak_year_to": 1750, "comment": null, "description": " The seventeenth century was a period of major demographic and economic contraction, but by the mid-18th century, recovery had begun.§REF§Carpanetto and Recuperati, 47§REF§ Gross has estimated that in 1684, the Papal States' trade and payment deficit was five million <i>scudi</i>; in 1786, the Papal States' imports exceeded their exports by three times.§REF§Gross, 88§REF§ Rome remained what it had long been, a parasitic drain on the Agro Romano.§REF§Carpanetto and Ricuperati, 15§REF§ An important contribution to the future demographic and economic health of Lazio was the draining of the Pontine Marshes, carried out under Popes Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, and Pius VI.§REF§Carpanetto and Recuperati, 48§REF§" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1506, "peak_year_to": 1506, "comment": null, "description": " This was the year that Pope Julius II re-took Bologna and Perugia, deposing their lords and reincorporating them into the Papal State. Julius' pontificate furthermore was a highpoint of the Roman Renaissance, as he sponsored artists such as Rafael and Michelangelo; in addition to this, Rome in the first quarter of the sixteenth century was a major diplomatic and political hub.§REF§Brown in Najemy, 262§REF§ This peak date should be bracketed, however, given that Julius was widely reviled during his own time (Erasmus wrote a famous dialogue between him and St. Peter, castigating Julius' worldliness) and by posterity as an excessively worldly pope. In addition, the almost completely secular orientation of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth-century popes was directly responsible for the Protestant Reformation, which would mark one of the greatest challenges to papal power the Church had ever faced.<br>" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 640, "peak_year_to": 640, "comment": null, "description": " Decentralization trend throughout period, as well as a power struggle between the Papacy in Rome and the Exarch of Ravenna, the nominal representative of the East Roman Emperor in Constantinople. The Byzantines appeared to abandon Liguria, the Lazial and Tuscan Maremma in the 640s CE.§REF§Marazzi, 386§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -287, "peak_year_to": -287, "comment": null, "description": "Turchin and Nefedov suggest a Republican cycle 350-30 BCE with \"stagflation\" around 180 BCE §REF§(Baker 2011)§REF§§REF§(Turchin and Nefedov 2009)§REF§ which implies expansion throughout this period and a late peak date.<br>During the 343-241 BCE period during which Rome was at war \"in almost every year\" and Latin colonies that were frequently established \"allowed those who were impoverished the chance to make a new life... it may be no accident that between 342 and 287 we hear little about indebtedness and social unrest\" in Rome.§REF§(Oakley 2004, 27) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -49, "peak_year_to": -49, "comment": null, "description": " The period of expansion under Caesar.<br>" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -133, "peak_year_to": -133, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 117, "peak_year_to": 117, "comment": null, "description": " Under Trajan, (98-117 CE). §REF§(Davidson 2011, 47)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -535, "peak_year_to": -535, "comment": null, "description": " Under the last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. Represented by the building of the Temple of Jupiter. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 118, 121)§REF§ Or after the reforms of Servius Tullius (578-535 BC) - since the last king was overthrown.<br>" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 439, "peak_year_to": 439, "comment": null, "description": " Theodosius II, institute Codex Theodosianus in 439 CE (which applied in the Western Empire).<br>" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 850, "peak_year_to": 900, "comment": null, "description": " Under nominal Byzantine suzerainty until 781 CE. In the early eighth century Charlemagne (reign 800-814 CE) added three cities to the holdings of the Papal State (Imola, Bologna, Ferrara; the details of which are given in the <i>Vita Hadriani</i> of the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i>).§REF§(Woods 1921, 54)§REF§ However, the late eighth and early ninth centuries was the highpoint politically and in terms of construction and the economy.§REF§Partner, 53§REF§ The papacy lost power and prestige during the ninth century, despite its gradual emancipation from Carolingian domination as the Frankish empire began to break up.§REF§Barraclough, 55§REF§ Between the end of the ninth century and the 960s, the papacy had no powerful protectors outside Italy. Political power in Rome and Lazio lay in the hands of the Theophylacti and other powerful Roman baronial families.§REF§(Stearns 2001 173) Wickham (2015) is now the definitive account of Rome and its territory from 900-1150§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1481, "peak_year_to": 1550, "comment": null, "description": " Chapter 2: \"Venice as a Great Power 1282-1481\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 46) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§ \"At the height of its power in the sixteenth century, the city of Venice counted nearly 170,000 souls, with a population of more than two million in its subject territories.\"§REF§(Martin and Romano 2000, 1) John Martin. Dennis Romano. Reconsidering Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1565, "peak_year_to": 1565, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1368, "peak_year_to": 1394, "comment": null, "description": " 'Yoshimitsu’s reign is deemed the pinnacle of Muromachi bakufu authority and prestige.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.8.§REF§ 'Yoshimitsu also fostered positive strides in Japanese politics, society, and culture, brokering the unification of the Northern and Southern Courts, reducing the fearsome raids of Japanese pirates (wako), and reestablishing trade with China’s Ming dynasty. Further, Yoshimitsu indulged in lavish patronage of the arts, including his monastic retreat, the Temple of the Golden Pavilion... Considering these accomplishments... After his death in 1408, there was a noticeable decline in Ashikaga leadership, and provincial chiefs such as lords and governors quickly filled the power void created as the bakufu attended to their military campaigns.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.8.§REF§ or 1392-1467 Kitayama epoch: a period of stable balance among court, shogun, and shugo §REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.36§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 794, "peak_year_to": 930, "comment": null, "description": " 'In fact, historians, both medieval and modern, of loyalist sympathies regard as the golden age of Japanese history those decades of direct rule by enlightened, \"virtuous\" emperors - Kammu (781-806) and Saga (809-23), and again Uda and Daigo (887-930). For loyalists, these were the years when Japanese rulers most closely approached the ideal reigns of the sage-kings of ancient China.' §REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.pp.1-2§REF§" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1225, "peak_year_to": 1225, "comment": null, "description": " 'Kamakura's golden age, which began now, owed much of its luster to the efforts of this extraordinary man.'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.74§REF§ 'In 1224, Hojo Yoshitoki died and was followed in death by Masakb a year later. The new leader of the bakufu was Yoshitoki's son, Yasutoki, by consensus the greatest of the Hojo regents. Born after the founding of the bakufu and educated in classical Confucianism, Yasutoki left a stamp on the regime's operations that survived until the end of the period. It was under Yasutoki that the bakufu's capacity for mediating disputes achieved new heights and under him also that Kamakura's reputation for good government became a fixture of the historical memory.'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.74§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 781, "peak_year_to": 794, "comment": null, "description": " 'In fact, historians, both medieval and modern, of loyalist sympathies regard as the golden age of Japanese history those decades of direct rule by enlightened, \"virtuous\" emperors - Kammu (781-806) and Saga (809-23), and again Uda and Daigo (887-930). For loyalists, these were the years when Japanese rulers most closely approached the ideal reigns of the sage-kings of ancient China.' §REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.pp.1-2§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1568, "peak_year_to": 1568, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1688, "peak_year_to": 1704, "comment": null, "description": " Known as the Genroku period ‘with its burst of fiction, theatre, and art, is popularly viewed as the glorious heyday of the Tokugawa urban cultural.’§REF§Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early Modern Japan. University of California Press. Berkeley; London.p.280.§REF§" } ] }