Polity Peak Years List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Peak Years.
GET /api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 302, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-peak-years/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 840, "peak_year_to": 840, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -900, "peak_year_to": -900, "comment": null, "description": "Most developed at the end of this period?" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 543, "peak_year_to": 543, "comment": null, "description": " First wave of the plague of Justinian struck Gaul in 543 CE.<br>" }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 751, "peak_year_to": 751, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 584, "peak_year_to": 629, "comment": null, "description": " \"the reigns of Chlothar II (584-629 CE) and Dagobert I (623, 629-639 CE) can be seen as marking the apogee of Merovingian power, both at home and abroad. §REF§(Wood 1994, 140)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -450, "peak_year_to": -450, "comment": null, "description": " Early Iron Age.<br>" }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -200, "peak_year_to": -200, "comment": null, "description": " Maximum expansion of the Celtic tribes occurred in the 3rd Century BCE.§REF§(Kruta 2004, 14)§REF§ Urbanisation, centralisation and economic activity increased throughout period so peak date at the end.<br>" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -125, "peak_year_to": -125, "comment": null, "description": "After 200 BCE greater Roman influence in Gaul. High point perhaps 150 BCE the date when Rome sought a formal treaty with the powerful King of the Averni. §REF§(Collis 2003, 170)§REF§<br>By c120 BCE Rome had established the province of Gallia Narbonensis in Southern Gaul. §REF§(Wells 1999, 48)§REF§ This set the stage for Gaul to be conquered by the Romans in the mid-first century.<br>" }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1364, "peak_year_to": 1380, "comment": null, "description": "Charles V (reign 1364-1380 CE) \"revitalised the monarchy.\" §REF§(Solon 1995, 1785)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1515, "peak_year_to": 1515, "comment": null, "description": " Reigns of Charles VIII (1483-1498 CE) and Louis VII (1498-1515 CE) witnessed \"a remarkable recovery and expansion.\" §REF§(Potter 1995, 2)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1815, "peak_year_to": 1815, "comment": null, "description": "Following defeat of Napoleonic France. \"What materially enhanced the security of Britain's scattered possessions after 1815 ... was the relative peacefulness which afflicted international relations and the absence of any European nation strong enough to challenge the global superiority of the Royal Navy. This exceptional interlude faded in the 1870s with the rise of Continental powers harbouring colonial ambitions.\"§REF§(Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1650, "peak_year_to": 1701, "comment": null, "description": " The Portuguese established commercial relations with coastal Akan states in the late 15th century. The Ashanti empire was formed in 1701: 'A revolution in Ghanaian history was initiated by the establishment of direct sea trade with Europe following the arrival on the coast of Portuguese mariners in 1471. Initially Europe’s main interest in the country was as a source of gold, a commodity that was readily available on the coast in exchange for such European exports as cloth, hardware, beads, metals, spirits, arms, and ammunition. This gave rise to the name Gold Coast, by which the country was known until 1957. In an attempt to preserve a monopoly of the trade, the Portuguese initiated the practice of erecting stone fortresses (Elmina Castle, dating from 1482, was the first) on the coast on sites leased from the native states. In the 17th century the Portuguese monopoly, already considerably eroded, gave way completely when traders from the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia-Protestant sea powers antagonistic to Iberian imperial pretensions-discovered that the commercial relations developed with the Gold Coast states could be adapted to the export of slaves, then in rapidly increasing demand for the American plantations, as well as to gold trading. By the mid-18th century the coastal scene was dominated by the presence of about 40 forts controlled by Dutch, British, or Danish merchants. The presence of these permanent European bases on the coast had far-reaching consequences. The new centres of trade thus established were much more accessible than were the Sudanese emporia, and this, coupled with the greater capacity and efficiency of the sea-borne trade compared with the ancient overland routes, gradually brought about the reversal of the direction of the trade flow. The new wealth, tools and arms, and techniques and ideas introduced through close contact with Europeans initiated political and social as well as economic changes. The states north of the forest, hitherto the wealthiest and most powerful, declined in the face of new combinations farther south. At the end of the 17th century, the Akan state of Akwamu created an empire that, stretching from the central Gold Coast eastward to Dahomey, sought to control the trade roads to the coast of the whole eastern Gold Coast. The Akwamu empire was short-lived, but its example soon stimulated a union of the Asante (Ashanti) states of the central forest (see Asante empire), under the leadership of the founding Asantehene (king) Osei Tutu. The Asante union, after establishing its dominance over other neighbouring Akan states, expanded north of the forest to conquer Bono, Banda, Gonja, and Dagomba.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana/Daily-life-and-social-customs#toc76828\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana/Daily-life-and-social-customs#toc76828</a>§REF§ 'The Portuguese first arrived in 1471 and later built a trading post at Elmina in 1486. Drawn by the trading activity on the coast, descendants of the defunct Bonda and Kumbu kingdoms settled along the north-south trade routes connecting the coast to the Niger bend region. The Queen mother of the Bonda founded the Akyerekyere kingdom along one trade route, which became a clearinghouse for goods from the coast. A prince of the former Kumbu royal house founded the Akumu-Akoto kingdom on another trade route. The Portuguese referred to this latter kingdom as the 'Acanes,' hence the name Akan. Emigrants from Akumu-Akoto founded a second city-state to the east, called Akwamu. Emigrants from Akwamu in turn founded the Asantemanso kingdom in the Kumasi region. Mande-speaking immigrants conquered the Akyerekyere kingdom and later the Asantemanso kingdom to become the dominant power in the region, the Denkyira. In 1701, the Asantemanso under the leadership of Osei Tutu (d. 1717) rebelled and defeated the Denkyira.'§REF§HRAF Cultural Summary for 'Akan' Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard§REF§ Due to the short-lived and geographically circumscribed character of many Akan states of the time, a peak period is hard to identify. We follow Wilks' work on the consolidation and expansion of the Akwamu empire §REF§Wilks, Ivor 1957. \"THE RISE OF THE AKWAMU EMPIRE, 1650-1710\", 25-62§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1800, "peak_year_to": 1824, "comment": null, "description": " 'Between Osei Tutu and Osei Bonsu (1800-1824) the Asante conquered or otherwise brought into subjection to the Asantehene (King of Asante), nearly all the peoples now inhabiting all the regions of modern Ghana and also east-central and south-western Ivory Coast (Rattray, 1923: 287-293; Priestley and Wilks, 1960; Fynn, 1971: 105, 155; Meredith, 1812; Wilks, 1975; 43-79).' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1986. “Asante Praise Poems: The Ideology Of Patrimonialism”, 165§REF§ 'Looking back they recall how, until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, they controlled an ever-increasing area which at its peak stretched over 550 km into the interior and encompassed many distinctive groups and regions. Asante armies were powerful and well-organised, equipped with imported firearms scarcely available to poorer and more isolated northern groups.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 10§REF§ Within this general trend of military conquest and domination, the peak period was likely the early 19th century, characterized by military successes against the British: 'One major reason for this increase in British influence came as a result of Asante expansion toward the coast. For the Asante this was vitally necessary to ensure a ready supply of European firearms to maintain their hold over their outlying provinces. [...] In 1806 the Asante, under their dynamic leader, Asantehene Osei Bonsu, defeated the Fante and besieged the British fort at Anomabu. In 1811, 1814, and 1816 the Asante again invaded the Fante area and finally established domination over the coast. [...] A dispute over jurisdiction eventually led to war, but Macarthy's forces proved no match for the Asantes. In 1824, at the battle of Nsamankow, they were ambushed and the governor and seven of his officers were killed. At this point the Asante empire was at the height of its power.' §REF§Gocking, Roger S. 2005. “The History of Ghana”, 30p§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -650, "peak_year_to": -650, "comment": null, "description": " 7th century BCE<br>" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -350, "peak_year_to": -350, "comment": null, "description": " 4th century BCE<br>" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 824, "peak_year_to": 961, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1200, "peak_year_to": -1100, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -800, "peak_year_to": -800, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -250, "peak_year_to": -250, "comment": null, "description": " 3rd century BCE<br>" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1390, "peak_year_to": -1300, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -4500, "peak_year_to": -3000, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1500, "peak_year_to": -1450, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1800, "peak_year_to": -1700, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1300, "peak_year_to": -1200, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -2300, "peak_year_to": -1900, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1200, "peak_year_to": 1200, "comment": null, "description": " For this early period, ‘peak date’ may be meaningless. If it should be coded, however, 1200ce (the end of the time period) makes sense because this was when the population was the largest and the society presumably the most developed. [The period when the polity was at its peak, whether militarily, in terms of the size of territory controlled, or the degree of cultural development. This variable has a subjective element, but typically historians agree when the peak was.]<br>" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1580, "peak_year_to": 1580, "comment": null, "description": " Since this is the period during which social complexity, stratification, territorial unification, agricultural intensification, population, etc. were increasing (before they plateaued), it is safe to say that the ‘peak’ was at the end of the period.<br>" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1900, "peak_year_to": 1946, "comment": null, "description": " During the latter half of the 19th century, the Iban communities of Borneo were increasingly subject to incursions on the part of the expanding White Rajah polity. 'During the first phase of Sarawak's history, Broke sent numerous punitive expeditions out from Kuching in an attempt to pacify the area. After each successful attempt in lands which belonged to the Sultan of Brunei, Brooke renewed his efforts to be granted dominion over the newly pacified area in exchange for financial remuneration. With each pacification came new Iban migrations. Piece by piece, the Brooke Raj was extended, eating up the territory of Brunei, while the Iban population continued to move in the same general direction, although not as quickly as the government (Figures 1.2 and 1.3).' §REF§Austin, Robert Frederic 1978. “Iban Migration: Patterns Of Mobility And Employment In The 20Th Century”, 13p§REF§ 'The history of the Iban and of the Brookes has been written many times over, the most complete of the studies being that by Pringle (1970). In general, the following years were a study of conquest and expansion from 1841 to the turn of the century. When, in 1904, the British government formally intervened in Borneo, the expansion of Sarawak ended and its consolidation began.' §REF§Austin, Robert Frederic 1978. “Iban Migration: Patterns Of Mobility And Employment In The 20Th Century”, 13§REF§ The consolidation of Brooke Raj rule was terminated by the cessation of North Borneo to the Crown: 'In September 1941, on the centenary of Brooke rule, the third raja proclaimed a constitution designed to establish self-government for Sarawak, but shortly afterward the state fell to the Japanese. When World War II was over, Vyner Brooke decided that Sarawak should be ceded to Great Britain, and, after a bitter family feud, he formally terminated Brooke rule on July 1, 1946.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ 'In July 1946 both Sarawak and North Borneo were made British crown colonies. In Dutch Borneo a strong nationalist sentiment developed and led to fighting between Indonesian and Dutch forces as the latter attempted to reimpose Netherlands control. Sovereignty passed to the Indonesians in 1949, and in 1950 a new constitution proclaimed Dutch Borneo part of the Republic of Indonesia. The British government relinquished its sovereignty over Sabah and Sarawak in 1963, when these territories joined the Malaysian federation. This marked the commencement of Indonesian hostilities in the form of guerrilla raids across the border. These raids ceased by agreement in 1966. Except for the period of Japanese occupation, Brunei was under British protection from 1888 to 1983. It became fully independent on Jan. 1, 1984.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 46, "name": "id_buni", "long_name": "Java - Buni Culture", "start_year": -400, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 100, "peak_year_to": 100, "comment": null, "description": " Zahorka states the Buni pottery discoveries date between 400 B.C.E. to 100 C.E. §REF§(Zahorka 2007, 27)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1389, "peak_year_to": 1389, "comment": null, "description": " Under Hayam Wuruk. §REF§(Lamoureux 2003, 14)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 850, "peak_year_to": 850, "comment": null, "description": " The period between 732 and 918 is said to be a golden age of Javanese culture - height of temple building projects and thus the flourishing of art and architecture.§REF§(Miksic in Ooi 2004, 863)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -1550, "peak_year_to": -1550, "comment": null, "description": " The end of the Middle Bronze Age, and the last point at which the Canaanite \"Hyksos\" controlled the Egyptian Delta. Shortly thereafter, Egypt reunified under Ahmose, who expelled the Hyksos from the Delta. Following this, Egypt launched a devastating series of invasions of Canaan, notably under Thutmose III; the effect of these was to reduce the Canaanite city-states to vassal status, and (judging from Egyptian records) to drain a great deal of wealth away to Egypt.§REF§Golden (2009:5-7).§REF§" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -105, "peak_year_to": -105, "comment": null, "description": " This approximates the high point of the rule of John Hyrcanus, who engaged in significant conquests. After his death in 104 BCE, his sons and grandsons engaged in frequent intrigues and civil wars involving much loss of life. While Alexander Jannaeus briefly conquered additional territory in the Transjordan, he soon lost it and much of Hyrcanus' earlier conquests following the disastrous Battle of Gadara in 93 BCE.<br>" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -855, "peak_year_to": -855, "comment": null, "description": " This is at the apex of the reign of King Ahab, shortly before he participated in a regional coalition against the Assyrian Empire at the Battle of Qarqar c. 853 BCE. While the hard historical evidence of the battle's outcome is slight, it is known that the Assyrian campaign did not proceed further south afterwards, and only retook the territory four years later. Nevertheless, Ahab died shortly after the battle and many subject kingdoms rebelled upon his death, including Moab and Edom.§REF§Kelle (2007:78-80)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 609, "peak_year_to": 643, "comment": null, "description": " Despite inheriting an empire torn apart by succession wars and the rebellions of provincial rulers, Pulakesin II was able to re-establish his dynasty's power through much of the Deccan, further extended the empire's bounds through a series of successful military campaigns, and founded new dynastic lines in Eastern India and in the Gujarat region §REF§K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Chalukyas of Badami, in G. Yasdan, The Early History of the Deccan, vol. 1 (1960), pp. 212§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1076, "peak_year_to": 1126, "comment": null, "description": " The reign of Vikramaditya VI was long and relatively peaceful; the capital flourished and the Chalukyas' territories and influence extended. Scholars did much important work, including Vijnanesvara's Mitasakara, a commentary to the Yajnavalkya-smrti that would eventually become \"the present law code for Hindus throughout India except Bengal\" §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), pp. 94-95§REF§." }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1296, "peak_year_to": 1316, "comment": null, "description": " During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296 CE-1316 CE), the sultanate reached its peak of centralized power and acquired imperial dimensions. To maintain a full treasury, the sultan raised the land tax to 50 percent of each crop and strictly enforced its collection from all Hindu subjects in his realm. He also introduced two new taxes, one on milk cattle, the other on houses. His network of spies and loyal courtiers was efficient enough to make him more feared than hated. He introduced a successful system of wage and price control in Delhi. Private holding of gold and silver, common throughout much of Indian history, was temporarily ended during his reign. The prices of food, grains, and cloth were kept low enough to permit soldiers and average workers to survive without high salaries. Merchants were licensed, and their profits were kept under strict state control; peasants were obliged to sell their grains only to registered food merchants at fixed prices. Hoarding was forbidden and, if discovered, severely punished. §REF§Wolpert, S. A. (1997). A new history of India (p. 212). Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.114-115§REF§<br>The Sultanate was at its height during the early fourteenth century CE, when it was the largest polity in South Asia.§REF§Habib, I. (2005). The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.37-44.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1867, "peak_year_to": 1900, "comment": null, "description": " A peak date is hard to identify for the A’chik population itself. The Empire peaked in the 19th century, in the last quarter of which the Garo Hills were incorporated into the British colonial structure. The British sent punitive campaigns into the hills in order to suppress resistance as well as infighting. Administrative control was established around 1873. Most authors consider the area 'pacified' for the remainder of the colonial period. 'The 19th century marked the full flower of the British Empire. Administration and policy changed during the century from the haphazard arrangements of the 17th and 18th centuries to the sophisticated system characteristic of Joseph Chamberlain’s tenure (1895-1900) in the Colonial Office. That office, which began in 1801, was first an appendage of the Home Office and the Board of Trade, but by the 1850s it had become a separate department with a growing staff and a continuing policy; it was the means by which discipline and pressure were exerted on the colonial governments when such action was considered necessary. [...] In the wake of the Indian Mutiny (1857), the British crown assumed the East India Company’s governmental authority in India. Britain’s acquisition of Burma (Myanmar) was completed in 1886, while its conquest of the Punjab (1849) and of Balochistān (1854-76) provided substantial new territory in the Indian subcontinent itself. The French completion of the Suez Canal (1869) provided Britain with a much shorter sea route to India. Britain responded to this opportunity by expanding its port at Aden, establishing a protectorate in Somaliland (now Somalia), and extending its influence in the sheikhdoms of southern Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Cyprus, which was, like Gibraltar and Malta, a link in the chain of communication with India through the Mediterranean, was occupied in 1878. Elsewhere, British influence in the Far East expanded with the development of the Straits Settlements and the federated Malay states, and in the 1880s protectorates were formed over Brunei and Sarawak.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 400, "peak_year_to": 400, "comment": null, "description": " \"'Perfection had been attained', declares the last of the three Junagadh inscriptions. 'While he [Skanda-Gupta] is reigning, verily no man among his subjects falls away from <i>dharma</i>; there is no one who is distressed, in poverty, in misery, avaricious, or who, worthy of punishment, is over-much put to torture'. Such a glowing depiction of Gupta society is to be expected from a royal panegyric. It is, however, corroborated by an alien and presumably impartial eye-witness.//'The people are very well off, without poll tax or official restrictions . . . The kings govern without corporal punishment; criminals are fined according to circumstance, lightly or heavily. Even in cases of repeated rebellion they only cut off the right hand. The king's personal attendants, who guard him on the right and the left, have fixed salaries. Throughout the country the people kill no living thing nor drink wine, nor do they eat garlic or onions, with the exception of the Chandalas only'.//\"To Fa Hian (Fa-hsien, Faxian, etc.), a Buddhist pilgrim from China who visited India in c. 400-410, Chandra-Gupta II's realm was indeed something of a utopia. [...] Only the lot of the Chandalas he found unenviable; outcastes by reason of their degrading work as disposers of the dead, they were universally shunned and had to give warning of their approach so that fastudious caste-members could take cover. But no other sections of the population were notably disadvantaged, no other caste distinctions attracted comment from the Chinese pilgrim, and no oppressive caste 'system' drew forth his surprised censure. Peace and order prevailed. [...] Trade continued to flourish, both within India and overseas.\"§REF§(Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1225, "peak_year_to": 1225, "comment": null, "description": " The glorious part of Hoysala empire ended in 1235, with Vira-Narasimha’s death §REF§J. Duncan M. Derrett, The Hoysalas (1957), p. 116§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 435, "peak_year_to": 455, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaBanavasi.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaBanavasi.htm</a>§REF§ The reign of Kakushtavarma is widely regarded as the greatest era of the Kadamba Empire. The Emperor concluded matrimonial alliances with other prominent families, thus extending the Kadambas' influence over the rest of peninsular India §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 46§REF§. Moreover, he created an internal \"protective force\" to ensure safe movement of people from one part of the empire to another§REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 47§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -269, "peak_year_to": -232, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1630, "peak_year_to": 1707, "comment": null, "description": " Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in Agra between 1632 CE-1648 CE and his reign saw the golden age of Mughal architecture. Aurangzeb reigned from 1658 CE to 1707 CE, during which time the territory, wealth and population of the empire grew. His reign also saw the zenith of Mughal cannon production. §REF§Fergus Nicoll, Shah Jahan: The Rise and Fall of the Mughal Emperor (2009)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 814, "peak_year_to": 878, "comment": null, "description": " The reign of Amoghavarsa I (also known as Nrpatunga) was long and relatively peaceful. Literature and the arts flourished, and the capital of Malkhed was built. Of the three main religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism), the Emperor favoured Jainism particularly, but, like all other Rashtrakuta rulers, Amoghavarsa I was tolerant and financially generous towards all faiths §REF§A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 120-122§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 106, "peak_year_to": 130, "comment": null, "description": " During the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the empire emerged from a period of decline (dating more or less from the end of Hala's reign), with military victories against the Shakas, Pallavas, Yavanas, and Shakharatas, which led to annexation of new territory and the re-conquest of previously Satavahana territory §REF§U. Singh, A History of Ancient and Medieval India (2008), p. 383§REF§§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.salivahana.com/The%20Satavahana%20Rule.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.salivahana.com/The%20Satavahana%20Rule.html</a>§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 510, "peak_year_to": 510, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Vakataka empire, which was thus at the zenith of its glory at about 510 A.D., disappeared within less than forty years. By c. 500 A.D. the Chalukyas occupied the greater part of it.\"§REF§(Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 123) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1505, "peak_year_to": 1542, "comment": null, "description": " The realm reached its greatest extent and its rulers their greatest power under the dynasty of Tuluvas, who ruled the kingdom of Vijayanagara for a little less than four decades from 1505-1542§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 1§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 809, "peak_year_to": 809, "comment": null, "description": " The end of the reign of Harun- al Rashid (763-809 CE) whose rule is described in The Thousand and One Nights. §REF§Esposito, John L.,The Oxford History of Islam, p. 691§REF§ Or alternatively the year range 786-809 CE, which the whole reign of Harun- al Rashid (763-809 CE) §REF§Esposito, John L.,The Oxford History of Islam, p. 691§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": 1226, "peak_year_to": 1226, "comment": null, "description": "Al-Nasir (r.1180-1225 CE)<br>\"Modern scholars, most notably Angelika Hartmann, argue that we was the last truly effective caliph in the Abbasid dynasty and 'restored this specifically Islamic institution to its former prestige.\"§REF§(Hanne 2007, 204) Hanne, Eric J. 2007. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.§REF§<br>The Caliphate of the late 12th to early 13th century \"was a very different institution than the one into which al-Qadir billah entered ... we should view al-Qadir and al-Nasir's caliphates as milestones in the history of the Abbasid Caliphate. Al-Nasir's caliphate was a culmination of caliphal revitalization, a process that did not follow a distinctly linear path, but rather was affected by the unique actions of each of the previous caliphs, starting with al-Qadir, who began the process with his attempts to reassert the caliphal position in Baghdad.\"§REF§(Hanne 2007, 204) Hanne, Eric J. 2007. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.§REF§<br>1226 CE since Az-Zahir built an army." }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_peak_years", "peak_year_from": -2190, "peak_year_to": -2154, "comment": null, "description": " the reign of Naram-Sin§REF§Franke 1995, 833§REF§<br>" } ] }