Polity Language List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Languages.
GET /api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=8
{ "count": 630, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=9", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=7", "results": [ { "id": 351, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Orokaiva", "comment": null, "description": " 'In the central part of the Northern District of Papua there is a concentration of approximately 26,000 people who are known collectively as the Orokaiva. The term Orokaiva came into use some years after European contact, and before that time the Orokaiva did not recognize themselves as a single group, nor did they all interact for any common purpose. Although they do not claim common ancestry, the various sub-groups possess a relatively homogeneous cultural heritage. The Orokaiva speak several dialects which are mutually intelligible and belong to a common language. [The term Orokaiva has no precise connotation but is here used in its widest sense to include such culturally related groups as the Notu, Binandere, Aiga and Sangara. The word is often used in a more restricted sense to refer to those people (predominantly speakers of the Kombu-Sangara dialects) who are served by the Higaturu Local Government Council.]'§REF§Crocombe, R. G., and G. R. (Geoffrey Robert) Hogbin 1963. “Land, Work, And Productivity At Inonda”, 1§REF§ 'Orokaiva, the most representative language, is classified in the Binanderean (or Binandere) family in the non-Austronesian Trans-New Guinea phylum languages spoken in most of the more densely populated parts of Oro Province. Orokaiva is spoken by about half of the population in the Orokaiva-Binandere area. Dialect divisions within the Orokaiva language area are minor; the boundaries of the area coincide with those of the region administered by the Higaturu Local Government Council, which covers the Saiho and most of the Sohe-Popondetta census divisions. While there are considerable vocabulary differences between the Binanderean languages, there is a close resemblance in grammar and enough similarity in vocabulary to make a limited degree of communication possible.' §REF§Latham, Christoper S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§" }, { "id": 352, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 353, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 354, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 355, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 356, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": " Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 357, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Prakrit", "comment": null, "description": " Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 358, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 359, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Aramaic", "comment": null, "description": " Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 360, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " Nothing is known about the spoken language(s) in use. §REF§Possehl, Gregory L., ‘The Transformation of the Indus Civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory, 11 (1997): 462§REF§" }, { "id": 361, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Language is unknown, and there would certainly have been regional/chronological variations.§REF§Gregory L. Possehl. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi, 1999, p.721§REF§" }, { "id": 362, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 363, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " Arabic; Sindhi: 950 CE §REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 198§REF§Another language known as Varchada Upbharish was also present." }, { "id": 364, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sindhi", "comment": null, "description": " Arabic; Sindhi: 950 CE §REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 198§REF§Another language known as Varchada Upbharish was also present." }, { "id": 365, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sindhi", "comment": null, "description": " [Sindhi; Punjabi]: 1335-1520 CE The Saraiki dialect of punjabi may have been spoken given the geographic territory of the Samma Sind kingdom. §REF§Khalid, Samia, and Aftab Hussain Gilani. \"Distinctive Cultural and Geographical Legacy of Bahawalpur.\" Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies 2, no. 2 (2009): 1-17.§REF§" }, { "id": 366, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Punjabi", "comment": null, "description": " [Sindhi; Punjabi]: 1335-1520 CE The Saraiki dialect of punjabi may have been spoken given the geographic territory of the Samma Sind kingdom. §REF§Khalid, Samia, and Aftab Hussain Gilani. \"Distinctive Cultural and Geographical Legacy of Bahawalpur.\" Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies 2, no. 2 (2009): 1-17.§REF§" }, { "id": 367, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " The Indus script has not yet been deciphered by linguists: \"The nature and content of the Indus script has been extensively debated in the literature. More than a hundred attempts have been made to assign meanings to various signs and sign combinations, relating it to proto-Dravidian language (see Parpola 2009, 1994, Mahadevan 1998) on the one hand and to Sanskrit (Rao 1982) on the other. It has even been suggested that the script is entirely numeric (Subbarayappa 1997). However, no consistent and generally agreed interpretation exists and most interpretations are at variance with each other and, at times, internally inconsistent (Possehl 1996).\"§REF§(Yadav and Vahia 2011, 3) Nisha Yadav and M.N. Vahia. 2011. Indus Script: A Study of its Sign Design. <i>SCRIPTA</i> 3: 1-36.§REF§ There were almost certainly a wide range of languages spoken, perhaps including one (or several) from an ancient language family known as 'Proto-Dravidian'.§REF§Possehl, Gregory L., ‘The Transformation of the Indus Civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory, 11 (1997): 462§REF§ §REF§Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p.248§REF§ \"Para-Munda, spoken in the Punjab at the time when the Rigvedic Aryans arrived and seemingly also by the Late Harappan settlers who were moving eastward into the Ganges region, must have been in the subcontinent for a considerable period. If the area where it was spoken in the Pre-Harappan period included the Indo-Iranian borderlands, then it is likely that Para-Munda was the main Harappan language, at least in the Punjab and probably throughout the civilization, and that Dravidian was a language spoken by the indigenous inhabitants of the west, possibly as far northwest as Saurashtra. In this case the language of the PostHarappans in Gujarat may have developed into the North Dravidian branch.//Alternatively Para-Munda may have been the language spoken by the hunter-gatherer-fisher communities that inhabited the Indus region before the people of the borderlands settled in the plains. If the newcomers to the region in the fifth millennium were Dravidian speakers, then it is possible that a Dravidian language was spoken by at least some of the farmers and pastoralists of the borderlands who settled in the plains and therefore by some Harappans but that Para-Munda remained the main language of many Harappan inhabitants of the Punjab.Studies of the Harappan script indicate that it was used to write a single language. It seems plausible that the overarching cultural unity of the Harappans would be matched by the existence of an official language, used in writing and spoken as a lingua franca throughout the Harappan realms. Nevertheless, it is quite possible that one or several other languages were also spoken in the Harappan state, specific to different regions or occupational groups, reflecting the different communities that had come together in its formation. Prolonged bilingualism is known to have occurred in other areas, for example in Mesopotamia where Sumerian and Akkadian coexisted for many centuries: though they belonged originally to the south and north parts of southern Mesopotamia (Sumer and Akkad), educated people from both regions spoke both languages.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008 page 2355-356) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 368, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The Indus script has not yet been deciphered by linguists: \"The nature and content of the Indus script has been extensively debated in the literature. More than a hundred attempts have been made to assign meanings to various signs and sign combinations, relating it to proto-Dravidian language (see Parpola 2009, 1994, Mahadevan 1998) on the one hand and to Sanskrit (Rao 1982) on the other. It has even been suggested that the script is entirely numeric (Subbarayappa 1997). However, no consistent and generally agreed interpretation exists and most interpretations are at variance with each other and, at times, internally inconsistent (Possehl 1996).\"§REF§(Yadav and Vahia 2011, 3) Nisha Yadav and M.N. Vahia. 2011. Indus Script: A Study of its Sign Design. <i>SCRIPTA</i> 3: 1-36.§REF§ There were almost certainly a wide range of languages spoken, perhaps including one (or several) from an ancient language family known as 'Proto-Dravidian'.§REF§Possehl, Gregory L., ‘The Transformation of the Indus Civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory, 11 (1997): 462§REF§ §REF§Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p.248§REF§ \"Para-Munda, spoken in the Punjab at the time when the Rigvedic Aryans arrived and seemingly also by the Late Harappan settlers who were moving eastward into the Ganges region, must have been in the subcontinent for a considerable period. If the area where it was spoken in the Pre-Harappan period included the Indo-Iranian borderlands, then it is likely that Para-Munda was the main Harappan language, at least in the Punjab and probably throughout the civilization, and that Dravidian was a language spoken by the indigenous inhabitants of the west, possibly as far northwest as Saurashtra. In this case the language of the PostHarappans in Gujarat may have developed into the North Dravidian branch.//Alternatively Para-Munda may have been the language spoken by the hunter-gatherer-fisher communities that inhabited the Indus region before the people of the borderlands settled in the plains. If the newcomers to the region in the fifth millennium were Dravidian speakers, then it is possible that a Dravidian language was spoken by at least some of the farmers and pastoralists of the borderlands who settled in the plains and therefore by some Harappans but that Para-Munda remained the main language of many Harappan inhabitants of the Punjab.Studies of the Harappan script indicate that it was used to write a single language. It seems plausible that the overarching cultural unity of the Harappans would be matched by the existence of an official language, used in writing and spoken as a lingua franca throughout the Harappan realms. Nevertheless, it is quite possible that one or several other languages were also spoken in the Harappan state, specific to different regions or occupational groups, reflecting the different communities that had come together in its formation. Prolonged bilingualism is known to have occurred in other areas, for example in Mesopotamia where Sumerian and Akkadian coexisted for many centuries: though they belonged originally to the south and north parts of southern Mesopotamia (Sumer and Akkad), educated people from both regions spoke both languages.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008 page 2355-356) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 369, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sakha (Yakut)", "comment": null, "description": " The Sakha people refer to their language as 'Sakha' however, many scholars have used the term 'Yakut'. 'The Yakut speak Yakut, a Northeast Turkic language of the Altaic Language Family. It is one of the most divergent of the Turkic languages, closely related to Dolgan (a mixture of Evenk and Yakut sometimes described as a Yakut dialect). The Yakut, over 90 percent of whom speak Yakut as their mother tongue, call their language \"Sakha-tyla.\" Their current written language, developed in the 1930s, is a modified Cyrillic script. Before this, they had several written forms, including a Latin script developed in the 1920s and a Cyrillic script introduced by missionaries in the nineteenth century. Yakut lore includes legends of a written language lost after they traveled north to the Lena valley.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§" }, { "id": 370, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sakha (Yakut)", "comment": null, "description": " The Sakha people refer to their language as 'Sakha' however, many scholars have used the term 'Yakut'. 'The Yakut speak Yakut, a Northeast Turkic language of the Altaic Language Family. It is one of the most divergent of the Turkic languages, closely related to Dolgan (a mixture of Evenk and Yakut sometimes described as a Yakut dialect). The Yakut, over 90 percent of whom speak Yakut as their mother tongue, call their language \"Sakha-tyla.\" Their current written language, developed in the 1930s, is a modified Cyrillic script. Before this, they had several written forms, including a Latin script developed in the 1920s and a Cyrillic script introduced by missionaries in the nineteenth century. Yakut lore includes legends of a written language lost after they traveled north to the Lena valley.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ Czarist administrators communicated in Russian." }, { "id": 371, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Merotic", "comment": null, "description": " Egyptianized professional class §REF§(Török 1997, 153)§REF§§REF§(Welsby 1998, 20)§REF§ Kushite language. Expressed first in Egyptian hieroglyphs, then Kushite hieroglyphs, then Kushite cursive writing. §REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571417/Sudan/24305/The-kingdom-of-Kush?anchor=ref245863\" rel=\"nofollow\">[3]</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 372, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Egyptian", "comment": null, "description": " Egyptianized professional class §REF§(Török 1997, 153)§REF§§REF§(Welsby 1998, 20)§REF§ Kushite language. Expressed first in Egyptian hieroglyphs, then Kushite hieroglyphs, then Kushite cursive writing. §REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571417/Sudan/24305/The-kingdom-of-Kush?anchor=ref245863\" rel=\"nofollow\">[3]</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 373, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " \"Under the administrations of the Caliphs 'Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2002, 50)§REF§ \"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, p. 126§REF§ In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 374, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Coptic", "comment": null, "description": " \"Under the administrations of the Caliphs 'Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2002, 50)§REF§ \"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, p. 126§REF§ In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 375, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"Under the administrations of the Caliphs 'Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2002, 50)§REF§ \"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, p. 126§REF§ In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 376, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " \"Under the administrations of the Caliphs 'Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2002, 50)§REF§ \"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, p. 126§REF§ In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 377, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Tai", "comment": null, "description": " \"The group of languages now known as Tai probably originated among peoples who lived south of the Yangzi River before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area from the 6th century BC. As the Han armies came to control China's southern coastline in the first few centuries AD, some of these peoples retreated into the high valleys in the hills behind the coast. Then, over many centuries, some moved westwards, spreading Tai language dialects along a 1000-kilometre arc from the Guanxi interior to the Brahmaputra valley. They probably took with them some expertise in growing rice using the water flow from mountain streams.\"§REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, pp. 4-5)§REF§" }, { "id": 378, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Thai", "comment": null, "description": " \"The group of languages now known as Tai probably originated among peoples who lived south of the Yangzi River before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area from the 6th century BC. As the Han armies came to control China's southern coastline in the first few centuries AD, some of these peoples retreated into the high valleys in the hills behind the coast. Then, over many centuries, some moved westwards, spreading Tai language dialects along a 1000-kilometre arc from the Guanxi interior to the Brahmaputra valley. They probably took with them some expertise in growing rice using the water flow from mountain streams.\"§REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, pp. 4-5)§REF§" }, { "id": 379, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Thai", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, pp. 63-64)§REF§" }, { "id": 380, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " Arabic was the main language. Persian, Turkic, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin also \"spoken and studied\". §REF§(Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§ At start of Fatimid period rural people were majority Coptic-spreaking Christians, at end of period many of these Christians were conversing in Arabic.§REF§(Sanders 1998, 169-170) Sanders, Paula A. The Fatimid state, 969-1171. Petry, Carl F. ed. 1998. The Cambridge History of Egypt. Volume One. Islamic Egypt, 640-1517. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Jews started to write Arabic in Hebrew characters.§REF§(Sanders 1998, 170) Sanders, Paula A. The Fatimid state, 969-1171. Petry, Carl F. ed. 1998. The Cambridge History of Egypt. Volume One. Islamic Egypt, 640-1517. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 381, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Proto-Indo-European language", "comment": null, "description": " Some scholars suggest that populations speaking the proto-languages of what would later be Luwian/Hittite/Palaic entered and settled in Anatolia during the Neolithic period. Others suggest that Indo-European languages arrived in Anatolia some time during the Chalcolitic to Early Bronze Age periods. The final argument implies that Anatolia was actually part of the original Proto-Indo-European-speaking homeland. Both indigenous and Indo-European languages existed side by side on that plateau from earliest times. §REF§Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10§REF§" }, { "id": 382, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Nesite", "comment": null, "description": " And many others.§REF§Popko M. (1999) <i>Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii</i>, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70§REF§ \"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the 'Hittite' language.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 8)§REF§" }, { "id": 383, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Luwian", "comment": null, "description": " And many others.§REF§Popko M. (1999) <i>Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii</i>, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70§REF§ \"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the 'Hittite' language.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 8)§REF§" }, { "id": 384, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Hattic", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§§REF§Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§ §REF§also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§" }, { "id": 385, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Luwian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§§REF§Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§ §REF§also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§" }, { "id": 386, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Hittite", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§§REF§Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§ §REF§also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§" }, { "id": 387, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Hurrian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§§REF§Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§ §REF§also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§" }, { "id": 388, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§§REF§Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>Karum</i> Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327§REF§ §REF§also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. <i>Anatolia in the Bronze Age</i>. Arnhelm 2012-3. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/1050689/Map_languages_Anatolia_North_Syria_and_Upper_Mesopotamia_1700_BC\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§" }, { "id": 389, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"In some of the central authorities Greek had established itself as the language of the chancery since the beginning of the fourth century, in contrast to the army, which retained Latin as the official military language until the beginning of the seventh century. Other imperial authorities, above all the ministry of justice, kept to the Latin language until the beginning of the seventh century.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) made Greek the official language. §REF§(Davidson 2011, 76-77) Davidson, P. 2011. Atlas of Empires. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London.§REF§ \"Greek (spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and Latin (spoken by part of the population as first language in the remaining possessions in Italy), Languages of minorities, migrants and deportees: Syriac, Armenian (in some eastern provinces of Anatolia, also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature), Slavonic (Balkans, deportees to Anatolia).\" §REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§" }, { "id": 390, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"In some of the central authorities Greek had established itself as the language of the chancery since the beginning of the fourth century, in contrast to the army, which retained Latin as the official military language until the beginning of the seventh century. Other imperial authorities, above all the ministry of justice, kept to the Latin language until the beginning of the seventh century.\"§REF§(Haussing 1971) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) made Greek the official language. §REF§(Davidson 2011, 76-77) Davidson, P. 2011. Atlas of Empires. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London.§REF§ \"Greek (spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and Latin (spoken by part of the population as first language in the remaining possessions in Italy), Languages of minorities, migrants and deportees: Syriac, Armenian (in some eastern provinces of Anatolia, also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature), Slavonic (Balkans, deportees to Anatolia).\" §REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§" }, { "id": 391, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"In some of the central authorities Greek had established itself as the language of the chancery since the beginning of the fourth century, in contrast to the army, which retained Latin as the official military language until the beginning of the seventh century. Other imperial authorities, above all the ministry of justice, kept to the Latin language until the beginning of the seventh century.\"§REF§(Haussing 1971) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) made Greek the official language. §REF§(Davidson 2011, 76-77) Davidson, P. 2011. Atlas of Empires. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London.§REF§; \"Greek (spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and Latin (spoken by part of the population as first language in the remaining possessions in Italy), Languages of minorities, migrants and deportees: Syriac, Armenian (in some eastern provinces of Anatolia, also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature), Slavonic (Balkans, deportees to Anatolia).\" §REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§" }, { "id": 392, "polity": { "id": 170, "name": "tr_cappadocia_2", "long_name": "Late Cappadocia", "start_year": -330, "end_year": 16 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"Cappadocia is another example of a kingdom which adopted Greek as the language of administration, and whose kings energetically sponsored cultural Hellenism (high literary culture, gymnasion culture; euergetism abroad), to gain acceptance in the international scene.\" §REF§(Ma, 2003, p188)§REF§" }, { "id": 393, "polity": { "id": 158, "name": "tr_konya_eca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Indo-European language", "comment": null, "description": " Indo-European language ? There is a hypothesis proposed by Colin Renfrew in 1987 - that Indo-European languages began to spread with the beginning of agriculture§REF§C. Renfrew, 1987. Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, Cambridge University Press§REF§" }, { "id": 394, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Indo-European language", "comment": null, "description": " Indo-European language (hypothesis) §REF§Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, C. Renfrew, Cambridge University Press 1987§REF§" }, { "id": 395, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " Spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and (still) Latin (spoken by the population as first language in the northern Balkans), wide usage of Coptic in Egypt, Syriac in Syria and Palestine, Armenian in some eastern provinces of Anatolia (also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature." }, { "id": 396, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Nesite", "comment": null, "description": " And many others.§REF§Popko M. (1999) <i>Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii</i>, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70§REF§ \"We find that no fewer than eight languages are represented in the tablet archives of the capital. Probably as many if not more languages were spoken in the streets of the capital every day, some of them quite different from the languages of the archives.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 5-6)§REF§ \"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the 'Hittite' language.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 8)§REF§ Luwian was not the official language but it \"very likely became the most widely spoken language of the Late Bronze Age Hittite empire.\"§REF§(Bryce 2012, 15)§REF§ \"The Cuneiform script was used throughout its history to write a number of different languages, and the Hattusa archives are composed for the most part in their writers' own language, generally termed by us 'Hittite', but by them 'Nesite', i.e. the language of Nesa or Kanes (modern Kultepe), which had presumably been an earlier Hittite centre, before Hattusa in Hatti. ... The Hittites also used the language Akkadian ('Babylonian' to them) as the international language of communication.\"§REF§(Hawkins 2000, 2) John David Hawkins. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin.§REF§ Other languages \"found in the archives, mostly of ritual and mythological content. These include Hattian, the pre-Hittite language of Hatti, and Hurrian, the language of the Hittites eastern neighbours; also Luwian and Palaic, languages closely related to Hittite, spoken by their kinsmen dwelling respectively to the south and south-west, and to the north-west of Hatti, and constituting with Hittite the IInd millennium B.C. section of the Anatolian group of Indo-European.\"§REF§(Hawkins 2000, 2) John David Hawkins. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin.§REF§" }, { "id": 397, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Luwian", "comment": null, "description": " And many others.§REF§Popko M. (1999) <i>Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii</i>, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70§REF§ \"We find that no fewer than eight languages are represented in the tablet archives of the capital. Probably as many if not more languages were spoken in the streets of the capital every day, some of them quite different from the languages of the archives.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 5-6)§REF§ \"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the 'Hittite' language.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 8)§REF§ Luwian was not the official language but it \"very likely became the most widely spoken language of the Late Bronze Age Hittite empire.\"§REF§(Bryce 2012, 15)§REF§ \"The Cuneiform script was used throughout its history to write a number of different languages, and the Hattusa archives are composed for the most part in their writers' own language, generally termed by us 'Hittite', but by them 'Nesite', i.e. the language of Nesa or Kanes (modern Kultepe), which had presumably been an earlier Hittite centre, before Hattusa in Hatti. ... The Hittites also used the language Akkadian ('Babylonian' to them) as the international language of communication.\"§REF§(Hawkins 2000, 2) John David Hawkins. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin.§REF§ Other languages \"found in the archives, mostly of ritual and mythological content. These include Hattian, the pre-Hittite language of Hatti, and Hurrian, the language of the Hittites eastern neighbours; also Luwian and Palaic, languages closely related to Hittite, spoken by their kinsmen dwelling respectively to the south and south-west, and to the north-west of Hatti, and constituting with Hittite the IInd millennium B.C. section of the Anatolian group of Indo-European.\"§REF§(Hawkins 2000, 2) John David Hawkins. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin.§REF§" }, { "id": 398, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Nesite", "comment": null, "description": " And many others.§REF§Popko M. (1999) <i>Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii</i>, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70§REF§ \"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the 'Hittite' language.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 8)§REF§" }, { "id": 399, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Luwian", "comment": null, "description": " And many others.§REF§Popko M. (1999) <i>Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii</i>, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70§REF§ \"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the 'Hittite' language.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 8)§REF§" }, { "id": 400, "polity": { "id": 168, "name": "tr_lydia_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia", "start_year": -670, "end_year": -546 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Lydian", "comment": null, "description": " There are two schools of thought about the origins of the Lydian language. One suggests that it arose in north-western Anatolia and its speakers entered and settled Lydia sometime after the 12th century CBE, before written Lydia arose in 7th century CBE. Other scholars suggest that Lydia was the language of the Bronze Age including the first settlers of Sardis and other urban centres of the time. §REF§Roosevelt, C.H. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. p. 897-913§REF§" } ] }