Polity Language List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Languages.
GET /api/general/polity-languages/?format=api
{ "count": 630, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Pashto", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from geographic region" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " inferred from geographic region" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " Persian literature.§REF§(Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a>§REF§ Claims of Ghurid poetry in Pashto unsubstantiated.§REF§(Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " {Greek; Bactrian} The Seleucids brought the use of Greek into the region when they turned Bactria into a satrap; Bactrian was in use in this period (indeed until the 8th century BCE). §REF§West, Barbara. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.( Infobase Publishing, 2009) pp. 75; 245-247.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " {Greek; Bactrian} The Seleucids brought the use of Greek into the region when they turned Bactria into a satrap; Bactrian was in use in this period (indeed until the 8th century BCE). §REF§West, Barbara. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.( Infobase Publishing, 2009) pp. 75; 245-247.§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " Bactrian; Iranian; Turkic According to the Chinese records from the period, the language of the Hephthalites was distinct from that of those Iranian-speaking people of Central Asia who were called Hu by the Chinese. However, there is no consensus among scholars.§REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)<i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 139</i>§REF§ Recent work has reappraised Chinese manuscript sources to postulate that the Hephtalites had ceased to retain their original Altaic language and adopted Bactrian by the end of the fourth century. §REF§De la Vaissière, É. \"Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites.\" Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): p. 122§REF§ \"Probably dominated by an Eastern Iranian language, but their mixed ancestry also lead to multilingualism.\"§REF§(West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sogdian", "comment": null, "description": " \"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke\".§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Coinage had \"inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ \"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far.\"§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population." }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " \"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke\".§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Coinage had \"inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ \"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far.\"§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population." }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Pahlavi", "comment": null, "description": " \"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke\".§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Coinage had \"inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ \"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far.\"§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population." }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Brahmi", "comment": null, "description": " \"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke\".§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Coinage had \"inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ \"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far.\"§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population." }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " Greek language on coins until reign of Kanishka I (128-150 CE). Thereafter only Bactrian script on coins. Kharoshthi discontinued on coins from the same time but \"was almost exclusively employed on various types of inscriptions in Gandhara and it was also exclusively and extensively employed for compiling Buddhist texts in Gandhara all through the Kushan period. .. Kharoshthi was also employed on a fairly large scale for writing non-religious texts, such as legal documents, land transfer deeds, official letters, etc. in various parts of Xingjiang Province of China, particularly in the Kashgar-Khotan-Niya Region.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ Kanishka I (155-190 CE) era inscriptions (Rabatak and Surkh Kotal) found in Bactrian script employing monumental Greek script rather than the cursive style.§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ the state chancery used both \"Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi\".§REF§(Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ There also was a \"formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians.\"§REF§(Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ Sanskrit and Prakrit (of various types) were literary languages.§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Official: Bactrian; {Regional: Gandhari; Sogdian; Greek; Chorasmian; Tocharian; Saka dialects}; Liturgical: Sanskrit." }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " Greek language on coins until reign of Kanishka I (128-150 CE). Thereafter only Bactrian script on coins. Kharoshthi discontinued on coins from the same time but \"was almost exclusively employed on various types of inscriptions in Gandhara and it was also exclusively and extensively employed for compiling Buddhist texts in Gandhara all through the Kushan period. .. Kharoshthi was also employed on a fairly large scale for writing non-religious texts, such as legal documents, land transfer deeds, official letters, etc. in various parts of Xingjiang Province of China, particularly in the Kashgar-Khotan-Niya Region.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ Kanishka I (155-190 CE) era inscriptions (Rabatak and Surkh Kotal) found in Bactrian script employing monumental Greek script rather than the cursive style.§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ the state chancery used both \"Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi\".§REF§(Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ There also was a \"formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians.\"§REF§(Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ Sanskrit and Prakrit (of various types) were literary languages.§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Official: Bactrian; {Regional: Gandhari; Sogdian; Greek; Chorasmian; Tocharian; Saka dialects}; Liturgical: Sanskrit." }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Kharoshthi", "comment": null, "description": " Greek language on coins until reign of Kanishka I (128-150 CE). Thereafter only Bactrian script on coins. Kharoshthi discontinued on coins from the same time but \"was almost exclusively employed on various types of inscriptions in Gandhara and it was also exclusively and extensively employed for compiling Buddhist texts in Gandhara all through the Kushan period. .. Kharoshthi was also employed on a fairly large scale for writing non-religious texts, such as legal documents, land transfer deeds, official letters, etc. in various parts of Xingjiang Province of China, particularly in the Kashgar-Khotan-Niya Region.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ Kanishka I (155-190 CE) era inscriptions (Rabatak and Surkh Kotal) found in Bactrian script employing monumental Greek script rather than the cursive style.§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ the state chancery used both \"Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi\".§REF§(Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ There also was a \"formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians.\"§REF§(Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ Sanskrit and Prakrit (of various types) were literary languages.§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Official: Bactrian; {Regional: Gandhari; Sogdian; Greek; Chorasmian; Tocharian; Saka dialects}; Liturgical: Sanskrit." }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Tocharian", "comment": null, "description": " There is still no consensus on the language of the Yuezhi: 'Some authors believe they originally spoke a \"Tocharian\" language, and others that they spoke an eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic language'.§REF§(Hill 2009, 312) John E. Hill. 2009. <i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the 'Western Regions' from the</i> Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing.§REF§ Benjamin describes Tocharian as 'the Indo-European language spoken by the core Yuezhi'.§REF§(Benjamin 2003) C. Benjamin. 2003. 'The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia', in <i>Ēran ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday</i>, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta and Gianroberto Scarcia. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I, published online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/</a>.§REF§ However, 'By the time Kajula Kadphrises ... established the Kingdom of the Kushans in Bactria, the Kushans had adopted Bactrian as their spoken language\".§REF§(Samad 2011, 88) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " There is still no consensus on the language of the Yuezhi: 'Some authors believe they originally spoke a \"Tocharian\" language, and others that they spoke an eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic language'.§REF§(Hill 2009, 312) John E. Hill. 2009. <i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the 'Western Regions' from the</i> Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing.§REF§ Benjamin describes Tocharian as 'the Indo-European language spoken by the core Yuezhi'.§REF§(Benjamin 2003) C. Benjamin. 2003. 'The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia', in <i>Ēran ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday</i>, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta and Gianroberto Scarcia. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I, published online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/</a>.§REF§ However, 'By the time Kajula Kadphrises ... established the Kingdom of the Kushans in Bactria, the Kushans had adopted Bactrian as their spoken language\".§REF§(Samad 2011, 88) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "archaic Chinese", "comment": null, "description": " \"The people whose material culture is studied here did not yet, as far as we know, use the Eastern Zhou term Zhongguo, or “middle kingdoms,” nor is there any evidence that they considered themselves to have a common collective identity. Indeed, it is likely that many, if not most, of those within the area of what is now the People’s Republic of China did not speak any language ancestral to modern Chinese. In addition to archaic Chinese, there would have been speakers of other Sino-Tibetan languages, as well as Altaic, Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien, Tai-Kadai, Austronesian, and perhaps even Indo-European languages.\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 13)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "archaic Chinese", "comment": null, "description": " \"The people whose material culture is studied here did not yet, as far as we know, use the Eastern Zhou term Zhongguo, or “middle kingdoms,” nor is there any evidence that they considered themselves to have a common collective identity. Indeed, it is likely that many, if not most, of those within the area of what is now the People’s Republic of China did not speak any language ancestral to modern Chinese. In addition to archaic Chinese, there would have been speakers of other Sino-Tibetan languages, as well as Altaic, Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien, Tai-Kadai, Austronesian, and perhaps even Indo-European languages.\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 13)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Xiangxi", "comment": null, "description": " The Hmong sub-groups spoke different languages: 'Miao, mountain-dwelling peoples of China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, who speak languages of the Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) family.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ 'The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ Xiangxi, Qiandong, and Chuanqiandian are among the major languages spoken by non-Chinese 'hill peoples': 'According to Chinese language classification, the Miao languages belong to the Miao-Yao Branch of Sino-Tibetan. Officially, these languages are termed fangyin (dialects) although they are not mutually intelligible. There are at least three main languages, further divisible into distinct and separate sublanguages or dialects of varying degrees of closeness. The Miao languages are tonal. Xiangxi, spoken in western Hunan by close to one million speakers, is associated with the Red Miao. It is comprised of two sublanguages. The larger of the two has been taken as standard and given a romanization for school texts and other local publications. The Qiandong language of central and eastern Guizhou is associated with the Black Miao. It has three major subdivisions. The most widespread of the three has well over a million speakers, and is taken as the official standard. The others, with a half million speakers each, are regarded as dialects and, as of this writing, have no official recognition. The Chuanqiandian languages are spoken by White, Flowery, and Blue Miao. There are at least seven major subdivisions, each further divided into a number of local dialects. As of 1994, only Chuanqiandianci (White Miao) and Diandongbei (Hua Miao) are officially recognized. Both of these formerly used a phonetic script, introduced by missionaries at the turn of the century. The script has been supplanted by a government-introduced romanization. In addition there are some eight additional fangyin , with several thousand speakers each, which do not fit into any of the major categories. Most of the Miao in Hainan are Yao speakers, and some Miao elsewhere speak only Dong or Chinese.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ The pace of the Sinification process still needs to be determined in further detail. The sources imply that Chuanqiandian was spoken by the Flowery Hmong, but make no mention of A-Hmao or Big Flowery Hmong. We have therefore chosen to keep all there of these major Chinese languages in the code, awaiting expert feedback on the A-Hmao." }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Qiandong", "comment": null, "description": " The Hmong sub-groups spoke different languages: 'Miao, mountain-dwelling peoples of China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, who speak languages of the Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) family.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ 'The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ Xiangxi, Qiandong, and Chuanqiandian are among the major languages spoken by non-Chinese 'hill peoples': 'According to Chinese language classification, the Miao languages belong to the Miao-Yao Branch of Sino-Tibetan. Officially, these languages are termed fangyin (dialects) although they are not mutually intelligible. There are at least three main languages, further divisible into distinct and separate sublanguages or dialects of varying degrees of closeness. The Miao languages are tonal. Xiangxi, spoken in western Hunan by close to one million speakers, is associated with the Red Miao. It is comprised of two sublanguages. The larger of the two has been taken as standard and given a romanization for school texts and other local publications. The Qiandong language of central and eastern Guizhou is associated with the Black Miao. It has three major subdivisions. The most widespread of the three has well over a million speakers, and is taken as the official standard. The others, with a half million speakers each, are regarded as dialects and, as of this writing, have no official recognition. The Chuanqiandian languages are spoken by White, Flowery, and Blue Miao. There are at least seven major subdivisions, each further divided into a number of local dialects. As of 1994, only Chuanqiandianci (White Miao) and Diandongbei (Hua Miao) are officially recognized. Both of these formerly used a phonetic script, introduced by missionaries at the turn of the century. The script has been supplanted by a government-introduced romanization. In addition there are some eight additional fangyin , with several thousand speakers each, which do not fit into any of the major categories. Most of the Miao in Hainan are Yao speakers, and some Miao elsewhere speak only Dong or Chinese.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ The pace of the Sinification process still needs to be determined in further detail. The sources imply that Chuanqiandian was spoken by the Flowery Hmong, but make no mention of A-Hmao or Big Flowery Hmong. We have therefore chosen to keep all there of these major Chinese languages in the code, awaiting expert feedback on the A-Hmao." }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chuanqiandian", "comment": null, "description": " The Hmong sub-groups spoke different languages: 'Miao, mountain-dwelling peoples of China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, who speak languages of the Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) family.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ 'The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ Xiangxi, Qiandong, and Chuanqiandian are among the major languages spoken by non-Chinese 'hill peoples': 'According to Chinese language classification, the Miao languages belong to the Miao-Yao Branch of Sino-Tibetan. Officially, these languages are termed fangyin (dialects) although they are not mutually intelligible. There are at least three main languages, further divisible into distinct and separate sublanguages or dialects of varying degrees of closeness. The Miao languages are tonal. Xiangxi, spoken in western Hunan by close to one million speakers, is associated with the Red Miao. It is comprised of two sublanguages. The larger of the two has been taken as standard and given a romanization for school texts and other local publications. The Qiandong language of central and eastern Guizhou is associated with the Black Miao. It has three major subdivisions. The most widespread of the three has well over a million speakers, and is taken as the official standard. The others, with a half million speakers each, are regarded as dialects and, as of this writing, have no official recognition. The Chuanqiandian languages are spoken by White, Flowery, and Blue Miao. There are at least seven major subdivisions, each further divided into a number of local dialects. As of 1994, only Chuanqiandianci (White Miao) and Diandongbei (Hua Miao) are officially recognized. Both of these formerly used a phonetic script, introduced by missionaries at the turn of the century. The script has been supplanted by a government-introduced romanization. In addition there are some eight additional fangyin , with several thousand speakers each, which do not fit into any of the major categories. Most of the Miao in Hainan are Yao speakers, and some Miao elsewhere speak only Dong or Chinese.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ The pace of the Sinification process still needs to be determined in further detail. The sources imply that Chuanqiandian was spoken by the Flowery Hmong, but make no mention of A-Hmao or Big Flowery Hmong. We have therefore chosen to keep all there of these major Chinese languages in the code, awaiting expert feedback on the A-Hmao." }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Hmong-Mien", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hmd\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hmd</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Hmongic", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hmd\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hmd</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chuanqiandian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hmd\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hmd</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Middle Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Jurchen", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Khitan", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": " Use of Xianbei at court by Xiaowendi was banned after 495 CE.§REF§(Xiong 2009, ci)§REF§ \"The Toba were a Mongol-speaking tribe of non-Chinese Buddhists...\" §REF§(Avery 2003, 40)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Xianbei", "comment": null, "description": " Use of Xianbei at court by Xiaowendi was banned after 495 CE.§REF§(Xiong 2009, ci)§REF§ \"The Toba were a Mongol-speaking tribe of non-Chinese Buddhists...\" §REF§(Avery 2003, 40)§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Manchu language", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Crossley & Rawski, 1993)§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Crossley & Rawski, 1993)§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Manchu language", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Crossley & Rawski, 1993)§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Crossley & Rawski, 1993)§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": " Sinitic language family." }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mongolian language", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Atanque", "comment": null, "description": " \"Despite the evident ethnic and linguistic diversity, according to Bischof (1983, 1971) and 16th century sources (Indiferente General 1528 in Langebaek 2007: 44) a language called atanque was spoken by a majority of the indigenous population. Whether it was a lingua franca in use between the distinct ethnic groups in the surrounding area and these polities, or the most widespread language is still debated.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 59)§REF§<br>\"Even the sacred language of the Kogi mamas - called \"Tairona\" or teijua - includes Spanish or Latin words and is interpreted by Jackson (1995:68) as a relatively recent derivation of a little-known, more ancient tongue. Even language cannot necessarily be assumed to represent the ancient languages spoken by the inhabitants of the chiefdoms that the Spanish found.\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 1-3)§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Shuar", "comment": null, "description": " The Shaur language is often referred to as 'Jivaro' by scholars. 'The Jivaro language is named Šuor by those who use it and Aoka by the neighboring peoples. It is spoken by both men and women, the latter use no other dialect among themselves.' §REF§Flornoy, Bertrand, and Margaret Coughlin 1938. “Contribution To The Study Of The Jivaro Or Suor Language”, 333§REF§ There is some disagreement on the precise linguistic grouping of relevant languages: 'It is generally believed that the Jivaro speak languages belonging to the Jivaroan Family of languages, but most historical linguists find it difficult to assign Jivaroan dialects and languages with any certainty to any of the recognized major language families of South American Indians. Greenberg, as noted in Harner (1973) has suggested that Jivaro as well as several other languages belong to a broad \"Andean Equatorial\" family (Harner, 1973: 13). In addition some Jivaro also speak Quechua as well as Spanish.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Jívaro, South American Indian people living in the Montaña (the eastern slopes of the Andes), in Ecuador and Peru north of the Marañón River. They speak a language of the Jebero-Jivaroan group.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Shuar", "comment": null, "description": " The Shaur language is often referred to as 'Jivaro' by scholars. 'The Jivaro language is named Šuor by those who use it and Aoka by the neighboring peoples. It is spoken by both men and women, the latter use no other dialect among themselves.' §REF§Flornoy, Bertrand, and Margaret Coughlin 1938. “Contribution To The Study Of The Jivaro Or Suor Language”, 333§REF§ There is some disagreement on the precise linguistic grouping of relevant languages: 'It is generally believed that the Jivaro speak languages belonging to the Jivaroan Family of languages, but most historical linguists find it difficult to assign Jivaroan dialects and languages with any certainty to any of the recognized major language families of South American Indians. Greenberg, as noted in Harner (1973) has suggested that Jivaro as well as several other languages belong to a broad \"Andean Equatorial\" family (Harner, 1973: 13). In addition some Jivaro also speak Quechua as well as Spanish.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Jívaro, South American Indian people living in the Montaña (the eastern slopes of the Andes), in Ecuador and Peru north of the Marañón River. They speak a language of the Jebero-Jivaroan group.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " {Arabic; Kurdish; Persian} \"The Ayyubids ruled a predominantly Arabic-speaking region, and many of their princes became very proficient in Arabic letters and in the religious sciences. However, we see many signs of a continuing connection with their homeland and with Iranian culture generally. Thus, it is clear that al-Malek al-ʿĀdel and his son al-Malek al-Moʿaẓẓam ʿĪsā (d. 624/1227) still spoke Kurdish or even New Persian.\" §REF§(Humphreys 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>)§REF§" } ] }