Polity Language List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Languages.
GET /api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=7
{ "count": 630, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=8", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=6", "results": [ { "id": 301, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bambara", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact that the Coulibaly belonged to the Bambara ethnic group§REF§K.C. MacDonald, <i>A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois</i>: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins, in F.G. Richard and K.C. MacDonald, Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities (2014), pp. 119-144§REF§." }, { "id": 302, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": " Songhay §REF§(Conrad 2010, 17)§REF§ Mande language: \"coup d'etat represented a return to Mande leadership in what was predominantly a Mande-speaking empire.\" §REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 68)§REF§" }, { "id": 303, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Songhay", "comment": null, "description": " Songhay §REF§(Conrad 2010, 17)§REF§ Mande language: \"coup d'etat represented a return to Mande leadership in what was predominantly a Mande-speaking empire.\" §REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 68)§REF§" }, { "id": 304, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Turkic", "comment": null, "description": " \"The question may be asked whether all these groups spoke the same language. The Orkhon inscriptions, engraved in the mid eighth century, are certainly Turkic - we refer to their language as Old Turkic, but one may as well call it Türk - and there is no reason to believe that at least the bulk of those who were called Türk used a different language. For example, the Chiu T'ang shu clearly states that the languages spoken by respectively the Eastern and Western Turks are only \"slightly different.\" There is, however, some evidence to show that the Turk state incorporated some non-Turkic peoples whose languages left traces in Turk proper names and even in the vocabulary of Turk.\" §REF§(Sinor 1990, 289-290)§REF§ \"As witnessed by the Bugut inscription, the role of the Sogdians within the Turk state ensured a prominent status for their language. It is safe to assume that it was widely used in commerce and in other international contacts.\" §REF§(Sinor 1990, 291)§REF§ c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§" }, { "id": 305, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sogdian", "comment": null, "description": " \"The question may be asked whether all these groups spoke the same language. The Orkhon inscriptions, engraved in the mid eighth century, are certainly Turkic - we refer to their language as Old Turkic, but one may as well call it Türk - and there is no reason to believe that at least the bulk of those who were called Türk used a different language. For example, the Chiu T'ang shu clearly states that the languages spoken by respectively the Eastern and Western Turks are only \"slightly different.\" There is, however, some evidence to show that the Turk state incorporated some non-Turkic peoples whose languages left traces in Turk proper names and even in the vocabulary of Turk.\" §REF§(Sinor 1990, 289-290)§REF§ \"As witnessed by the Bugut inscription, the role of the Sogdians within the Turk state ensured a prominent status for their language. It is safe to assume that it was widely used in commerce and in other international contacts.\" §REF§(Sinor 1990, 291)§REF§ c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§" }, { "id": 306, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Khitan", "comment": null, "description": " Describing the Shiwei: \"Their language is variously described as similar to Kitan and Qai (Chinese, Xi), that is, Mongolic, or as similar to Mohe (Malgal or Mukri), that is, Manchu-Tungusic.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 502)§REF§" }, { "id": 307, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mongolian", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97.§REF§" }, { "id": 308, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97.§REF§" }, { "id": 309, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Chinese", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97.§REF§" }, { "id": 310, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97.§REF§" }, { "id": 311, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Russian", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97.§REF§" }, { "id": 312, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Georgian", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97.§REF§" }, { "id": 313, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Armenian", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97.§REF§" }, { "id": 314, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mongolian", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans" }, { "id": 315, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Kereid", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans" }, { "id": 316, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Tatar", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans" }, { "id": 317, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Naimans", "comment": null, "description": " Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans" }, { "id": 318, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Khalkha", "comment": null, "description": " \"Khalkha dialect is the standard language of Mongolia.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 299)§REF§" }, { "id": 319, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Rouran", "comment": null, "description": " \"Since, as we shall see, the Turk state replaced that of the Juan-juan, it would be tempting - and probably correct - to assume that the Juan-juan language continued in use among the subjects of the newly formed Turk empire. Unfortunately we do not know what Juan-juan was like. In spite of repeated attempts to reconstruct them on the basis of Chinese transcriptions, Juan- juan proper names show no trace of being Turkic, nor can they consistently be explained from Mongol. It is probably safe to say that within the perimeter of the Juan-juan state a number of partly unrelated languages were in use, and that the Turks, together with the political power, inherited the linguistic status quo. Scattered but convincing data support such a hypothesis.\" §REF§(Sinor 1990, 290-291)§REF§" }, { "id": 320, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Turkic", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Türks spoke a dialect of Old Turkish belonging to the Oghuz family, close to modern Uighur, Uzbek, Türkmen, and Turkish, somewhat more distant from the Qipchaq family of Kazakh and Tatar, and quite far from the Oghur family of Chuvash and Old Bulghar. Although many other tribes also spoke close or identical dialects, the Türks’ imperial prestige gave a single name to the whole family of dialects.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 554)§REF§" }, { "id": 321, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Turkic", "comment": null, "description": " \"As is clearly shown by the inscriptions commemorating the deeds of their great men, Türks and Uighurs spoke the same language, used the same runic-type script and lived within the same geographic boundaries. Were it not for their name, the Uighurs would be indistinguishable from the Türks.\" §REF§(Sinor 1998, 197)§REF§ \"The Türks spoke a dialect of Old Turkish belonging to the Oghuz family, close to modern Uighur, Uzbek, Türkmen, and Turkish, somewhat more distant from the Qipchaq family of Kazakh and Tatar, and quite far from the Oghur family of Chuvash and Old Bulghar. Although many other tribes also spoke close or identical dialects, the Türks’ imperial prestige gave a single name to the whole family of dialects.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 554)§REF§" }, { "id": 322, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Xianbei", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 323, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Xiongnu", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 324, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Xiongnu", "comment": null, "description": " \"The results of the last linguistic reconstructions show that, on the territory between Ordos and Syano-Altai at the end of the I millennium B.C.E. - in the early centuries of the I millenium C.E., the arch-Turkic language went around. However, the Hsiung-nu vocabulary “recorded by Chinese belonged, in most cases, to the ‘upper’ functional style of the language of appropriate social formations that, probably, has not become the foregoer of the Turkic languages but, as it is typical of such functional styles, dissipated together with the society in which is functioned” (Dybo 2007: 199, 201). In either case, it should be remembered that the Xiongnu were polyethnic and polylingual nomadic empire. According to the written sources, the Xiongnu aristocracy included the Chinese counsellors and military commanders (most familiar of them is warlord Li Ling). The racial and ethnic tolerance is confirmed by the newest archaeological and genetic data (Kim et al. 2010). If, according to data of the physical anthropology, the Xiongnu of the Central and West Mongolia are close to the cultures of the Turkic circle then the Xiongnu of the East Mongolia bear many similarities to the Xiongnu of East Baikal area and Xienpi (Tumen 2011: 370).\" §REF§(Kradin 2014, 108-109)§REF§" }, { "id": 325, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Xiongnu", "comment": null, "description": " \"The results of the last linguistic reconstructions show that, on the territory between Ordos and Syano-Altai at the end of the I millennium B.C.E. - in the early centuries of the I millenium C.E., the arch-Turkic language went around. However, the Hsiung-nu vocabulary “recorded by Chinese belonged, in most cases, to the ‘upper’ functional style of the language of appropriate social formations that, probably, has not become the foregoer of the Turkic languages but, as it is typical of such functional styles, dissipated together with the society in which is functioned” (Dybo 2007: 199, 201). In either case, it should be remembered that the Xiongnu were polyethnic and polylingual nomadic empire. According to the written sources, the Xiongnu aristocracy included the Chinese counsellors and military commanders (most familiar of them is warlord Li Ling). The racial and ethnic tolerance is confirmed by the newest archaeological and genetic data (Kim et al. 2010). If, according to data of the physical anthropology, the Xiongnu of the Central and West Mongolia are close to the cultures of the Turkic circle then the Xiongnu of the East Mongolia bear many similarities to the Xiongnu of East Baikal area and Xienpi (Tumen 2011: 370).\" §REF§(Kradin 2014, 108-109)§REF§" }, { "id": 326, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Oirat", "comment": null, "description": " \"Oirat speech is a distinctive dialect or language of the Mongolian family. \" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 419)§REF§" }, { "id": 327, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": " mid-14th century onwards? Arabic \"was used for official correspondence in the Ghana Empire before the end of the twelfth century and in Mali in the mid-fourteenth century.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§" }, { "id": 328, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": " \"The dominant peoples of both the Ghana and Mali Empires ... were part of a huge, complex cultural group whose people, taken together, are known as Mande. \" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 19)§REF§" }, { "id": 329, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Zapotec", "comment": null, "description": " “…the iconography and hieroglyphic writing of Monte Albán I suggest that we are dealing with people who spoke an early version of Zapotec and practiced an early form of Zapotec religion.”§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p155§REF§" }, { "id": 330, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Zapotec", "comment": null, "description": " “…the iconography and hieroglyphic writing of Monte Albán I suggest that we are dealing with people who spoke an early version of Zapotec and practiced an early form of Zapotec religion.”§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p155§REF§" }, { "id": 331, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Zapotec", "comment": null, "description": " “…the iconography and hieroglyphic writing of Monte Albán I suggest that we are dealing with people who spoke an early version of Zapotec and practiced an early form of Zapotec religion.”§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p155§REF§" }, { "id": 332, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Zapotec", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p4. 27§REF§" }, { "id": 333, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Zapotec", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p4. 27§REF§" }, { "id": 334, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Zapotec", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p4. 27§REF§" }, { "id": 335, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 336, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 337, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " There are no written records from this phase, but later evidence shows that people in the valley spoke Zapotec, possibly from the succeeding San José Mogote phase, and the Otomanguean language families may have split before the start of this period.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p4-7§REF§" }, { "id": 338, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " There are no written records from this phase, but later evidence shows that people in the valley spoke Zapotec, possibly from the succeeding San José Mogote phase, and the Otomanguean language families may have split before the start of this period.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p4-7§REF§" }, { "id": 339, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " There are no written records from this phase, but later evidence shows that people in the valley spoke Zapotec, possibly from the succeeding San José Mogote phase, and the Otomanguean language families may have split before the start of this period.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p4-7§REF§" }, { "id": 340, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Icelandic", "comment": null, "description": " The Icelandic variant became increasingly distinct from Old Norse: 'The Icelandic language had now assumed its distinctive traits. Originally it was identical with the Old Norse found in southwestern Norway in the districts from which the greater number of Icelandic colonists emigrated. This language has been preserved in Iceland with but little change even to the present. But in the thirteenth century some peculiarities developed which distinguished it slightly from the original mother tongue. The Old Norse e and o in final position were changed to i and u, and the digraphs [...] were no longer kept distinct, but were both represented by [...]. This change was completed about 1300. In the fourteenth century the connecting vowel u also appears in Icelandic before final syllabic r, as vetur for vetr, dagur for dagr. After 1350 Norse underwent a new development similar to that of English and other Germanic tongues, while Icelandic, by preserving the old inflectional forms and other peculiarities, henceforth remained a distinct language.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 256§REF§ The linguistic 'conservatism' that enabled this development may have played a partial role in maintaining Icelandic autonomy: 'Another factor which was to be crucial for Iceland's status in the long term was the development of the Nordic languages. During the period of the Old Commonwealth, the Icelanders regarded the dialects spoken in the Nordic countries as a single language, which they called Norse or Danish. But in the 14th and 15th centuries the other Nordic languages underwent considerable change, while the Icelanders' language remained almost unaltered. Thus the Icelanders stopped calling their language Norse, and started to call it Icelandic. Their linguistic isolation in turn served to help the Icelanders keep foreign law and foreign officials out of the country. Iceland thus retained a remarkable degree of autonomy within the realm.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 19§REF§" }, { "id": 341, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 342, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 343, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Aymara", "comment": null, "description": " \"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 58)§REF§ This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented." }, { "id": 344, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Puquina", "comment": null, "description": " \"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 58)§REF§ This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented." }, { "id": 345, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Aymara", "comment": null, "description": " \"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 58)§REF§ This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented." }, { "id": 346, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Puquina", "comment": null, "description": " \"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 58)§REF§ This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented." }, { "id": 347, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 348, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Quechua", "comment": null, "description": " 160 different languages within the empire, 16 language groups. Araun, Arakawan, Aymaran, Cahuapanan, Harakmbet, Jivaroan, Panoan, Peba-Yaguan, Quechuan, Tacanan, Tucanoan, Tuoi, Witotoan, Zaparoan, two unlabelled. Quechua was the official language. §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§ \"Drawing from historical linguistic and toponymic (place-name) evidence, some linguists suggest that the Incas probably spoke Aymara well into the early imperial era, since that was the language of the southern Peruvian highlands in late prehistory and Aymara place-names are even found as far north as the central Peruvian highlands (Adelaar and Muysken 2004; Cerrón-Palomino 2004, 2008; Heggarty and Beresford-Jones 2012; figure 2.6b). Quechua and Aymara speakers apparently interacted a great deal, to the extent that the two languages now overlap about 30 percent (e.g., in lexicons).6 Such a scenario raises the questions as to when the Incas adopted Quechua as their administrative language, and why. The leading Andean linguist today, Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino (2012), suggests that the shift may have occurred as late as the rule of Wayna Qhapaq, that is, no more than three or four decades before the Spanish.’ arrival, because its widespread use in the lands to the north made it an effective sociopolitical tool.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 59-60)§REF§" }, { "id": 349, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 350, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Orokaiva", "comment": null, "description": " 'In the central part of the Northern District of Papua there is a concentration of approximately 26,000 people who are known collectively as the Orokaiva. The term Orokaiva came into use some years after European contact, and before that time the Orokaiva did not recognize themselves as a single group, nor did they all interact for any common purpose. Although they do not claim common ancestry, the various sub-groups possess a relatively homogeneous cultural heritage. The Orokaiva speak several dialects which are mutually intelligible and belong to a common language. [The term Orokaiva has no precise connotation but is here used in its widest sense to include such culturally related groups as the Notu, Binandere, Aiga and Sangara. The word is often used in a more restricted sense to refer to those people (predominantly speakers of the Kombu-Sangara dialects) who are served by the Higaturu Local Government Council.]' §REF§Crocombe, R. G., and G. R. (Geoffrey Robert) Hogbin 1963. “Land, Work, And Productivity At Inonda”, 1§REF§ 'Orokaiva, the most representative language, is classified in the Binanderean (or Binandere) family in the non-Austronesian Trans-New Guinea phylum languages spoken in most of the more densely populated parts of Oro Province. Orokaiva is spoken by about half of the population in the Orokaiva-Binandere area. Dialect divisions within the Orokaiva language area are minor; the boundaries of the area coincide with those of the region administered by the Higaturu Local Government Council, which covers the Saiho and most of the Sohe-Popondetta census divisions. While there are considerable vocabulary differences between the Binanderean languages, there is a close resemblance in grammar and enough similarity in vocabulary to make a limited degree of communication possible.' §REF§Latham, Christoper S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§" } ] }