Polity Language List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Languages.
GET /api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 630, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " \"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7).\"§REF§(Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Italian", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Italian", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Middle Japanese", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Japanese", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Middle Japanese", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Late Old Japanese", "comment": null, "description": " Late Old Japanese (9th-11th century); Middle Japanese (12th-16th century) §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Middle Japanese", "comment": null, "description": " Late Old Japanese (9th-11th century); Middle Japanese (12th-16th century) §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " It seems most likely that the Jomon people spoke a language similar to Ainu §REF§(Hudson 1999, 83-102)§REF§." }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " It seems most likely that the Jomon people spoke a language similar to Ainu §REF§(Hudson 1999, 83-102)§REF§." }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " It seems most likely that the Jomon people spoke a language similar to Ainu §REF§(Hudson 1999, 83-102)§REF§." }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " It seems most likely that the Jomon people spoke a language similar to Ainu §REF§(Hudson 1999, 83-102)§REF§." }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " It seems most likely that the Jomon people spoke a language similar to Ainu §REF§(Hudson 1999, 83-102)§REF§." }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " It seems most likely that the Jomon people spoke a language similar to Ainu §REF§(Hudson 1999, 83-102)§REF§." }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Middle Japanese", "comment": null, "description": " (12th-16th century)§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Japanese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Japanese", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Middle Japanese", "comment": null, "description": " Middle Japanese 12th-16th century." }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Early Modern Japanese", "comment": null, "description": "(17th-18th century) §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Japanese", "comment": null, "description": "It seems that the agricultural immigrants of the Yayoi period brought the Japanese language from the Korean peninsula§REF§Hudson, M. J., 2007. \"Japanese beginnings.\"In: W. Tsutsui (ed.), A Companion to Japanese History. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 16.§REF§." }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " After the Arab conquest of Central Asia in the eighth century Arabic became the \"new language for official communication and intellectual interchange\".§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ However, the Karakhanids themselves formed a Turkic elite and likely to have used Turkic for the military." }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Turkic", "comment": null, "description": " After the Arab conquest of Central Asia in the eighth century Arabic became the \"new language for official communication and intellectual interchange\".§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ However, the Karakhanids themselves formed a Turkic elite and likely to have used Turkic for the military." }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sogdian", "comment": null, "description": " c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§ \"The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian).\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 202)§REF§" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Turkic", "comment": null, "description": " c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§ \"The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian).\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 202)§REF§" }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Iranian", "comment": null, "description": " c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§ \"The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian).\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 202)§REF§" }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Khmer", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§ 'In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also included people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 231)§REF§" }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mon", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§ 'In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also included people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 231)§REF§" }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Tai", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§ 'In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also included people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 231)§REF§" }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Khmer", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§" }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Khmer", "comment": null, "description": " \"“A more likely explanation, advanced by L.P. Briggs, is that the increasing interaction between Khmer- and Mon-speaking residents of the Thai central plain, with the Mons being devotees of Theravada Buddhism, led gradually, over a half century orso, to the conversion of Khmer speakers farther east.\" §REF§(Chandler 2008, 81)§REF§" }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Khmer", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§ 'In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 231)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 199)§REF§" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mon", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§ 'In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 231)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 199)§REF§" }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Tai", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§ 'In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 231)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 199)§REF§" }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Pali", "comment": null, "description": " Khmer or Cambodian§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm</a>)§REF§ 'The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.'§REF§(Chandler 2004, p. 729)§REF§ 'Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).'§REF§(James 2004, p. 904)§REF§ 'In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 231)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 199)§REF§" }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Khmer", "comment": null, "description": " 'What is at least clear is that the people who lived in the lower Mekong Valley and delta in this period were the ancestors of the modern Khmers, speaking an archaic form of the Cambodian language.'§REF§(Tully 2005, 14)§REF§ 'Language: Old Khmer'§REF§(West 2009, 160)§REF§" }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": " 'What is at least clear is that the people who lived in the lower Mekong Valley and delta in this period were the ancestors of the modern Khmers, speaking an archaic form of the Cambodian language.'§REF§(Tully 2005, 14)§REF§ 'Language: Old Khmer'§REF§(West 2009, 160)§REF§" }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Khmer", "comment": null, "description": " Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. 'It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66)§REF§ 'Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ce- ramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.'§REF§(Miksin 2007, p. 123)§REF§ 'In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46)§REF§ 'What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 9)§REF§ 'Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system'§REF§(West 2009, p. 222)§REF§ 'The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mon", "comment": null, "description": " Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. 'It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66)§REF§ 'Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ce- ramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.'§REF§(Miksin 2007, p. 123)§REF§ 'In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46)§REF§ 'What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 9)§REF§ 'Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system'§REF§(West 2009, p. 222)§REF§ 'The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Khmer", "comment": null, "description": " Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. 'It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66)§REF§ 'Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ceramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.'§REF§(Miksin 2007, p. 123)§REF§ 'In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46)§REF§ 'What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 9)§REF§ 'Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system'§REF§(West 2009, p. 222)§REF§ 'The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mon", "comment": null, "description": " Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. 'It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66)§REF§ 'Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ceramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.'§REF§(Miksin 2007, p. 123)§REF§ 'In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46)§REF§ 'What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 9)§REF§ 'Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system'§REF§(West 2009, p. 222)§REF§ 'The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Phoenician", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 41§REF§" }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Berber", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 41§REF§" }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Spanish", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 41§REF§" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Portuguese", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 41§REF§" }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Bambara", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the name (Bambara and Bamana mean the same thing)§REF§K.C. MacDonald, <i>A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois</i>: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins, in F.G. Richard and K.C. MacDonald, Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities (2014), pp. 119-144§REF§." }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": " mid-14th century onwards? \"Arabic became important both for the diffusion of religion and for communications and trade.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§ mid-14th century onwards? Arabic \"was used for official correspondence in the Ghana Empire before the end of the twelfth century and in Mali in the mid-fourteenth century.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " mid-14th century onwards? \"Arabic became important both for the diffusion of religion and for communications and trade.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§ mid-14th century onwards? Arabic \"was used for official correspondence in the Ghana Empire before the end of the twelfth century and in Mali in the mid-fourteenth century.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§" } ] }