Polity Language List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Languages.
GET /api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 630, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " From the re-emergence of the Elamite Kingdom the Susian plane was occupied by people speaking a number of native languages. §REF§Stolpher, M.W. 2008. Elamite. In Woodard, R. D.(ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.49-50§REF§ In later periods the written Elamite shows close links with what would become the Persian language. §REF§Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 259§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "native Iranian languages", "comment": null, "description": " From the re-emergence of the Elamite Kingdom the Susian plane was occupied by people speaking a number of native languages. §REF§Stolpher, M.W. 2008. Elamite. In Woodard, R. D.(ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.49-50§REF§ In later periods the written Elamite shows close links with what would become the Persian language. §REF§Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 259§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 505, "name": "ir_neo_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam III", "start_year": -612, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§ Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use. §REF§Josef Wiesehöfer, 'Parthia, Parthian empire' in <i>The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization</i> eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180.§REF§ Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is \"Persian written in Aramaic characters.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§ \"Greek served as their official language.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§ \"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Pahlavi", "comment": null, "description": " \"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§ Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use. §REF§Josef Wiesehöfer, 'Parthia, Parthian empire' in <i>The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization</i> eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180.§REF§ Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is \"Persian written in Aramaic characters.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§ \"Greek served as their official language.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§ \"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§ Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use. §REF§Josef Wiesehöfer, 'Parthia, Parthian empire' in <i>The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization</i> eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180.§REF§ Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is \"Persian written in Aramaic characters.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§ \"Greek served as their official language.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§ \"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Pahlavi", "comment": null, "description": " \"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§ Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use. §REF§Josef Wiesehöfer, 'Parthia, Parthian empire' in <i>The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization</i> eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180.§REF§ Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is \"Persian written in Aramaic characters.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§ \"Greek served as their official language.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§ \"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " Persian used in literature and inscription on coins. Initially Arabic was used on coins. §REF§Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a>.§REF§ Turkic was used by some at court. \"Government officials and their servants, merchants, artisans and their apprentices, professors and students, all spoke Persian. Business and preaching were usually done in Persian. \" §REF§Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee, 'ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period</a>.§REF§ \"Qizilbash tribal elements and the early shahs especially were more comfortable in dialects of Turkish, native Iranians (Tajiks) spoke Persian and the primary language of the established faith was Arabic.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Turkic", "comment": null, "description": " Persian used in literature and inscription on coins. Initially Arabic was used on coins. §REF§Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a>.§REF§ Turkic was used by some at court. \"Government officials and their servants, merchants, artisans and their apprentices, professors and students, all spoke Persian. Business and preaching were usually done in Persian. \" §REF§Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee, 'ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period</a>.§REF§ \"Qizilbash tribal elements and the early shahs especially were more comfortable in dialects of Turkish, native Iranians (Tajiks) spoke Persian and the primary language of the established faith was Arabic.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " Persian used in literature and inscription on coins. Initially Arabic was used on coins. §REF§Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a>.§REF§ Turkic was used by some at court. \"Government officials and their servants, merchants, artisans and their apprentices, professors and students, all spoke Persian. Business and preaching were usually done in Persian. \" §REF§Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee, 'ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period</a>.§REF§ \"Qizilbash tribal elements and the early shahs especially were more comfortable in dialects of Turkish, native Iranians (Tajiks) spoke Persian and the primary language of the established faith was Arabic.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Pahlavi", "comment": null, "description": " \"The most widespread languages during the Sasanian era were Middle Persian (or Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, Khotanese Saka and Bactrian; various texts in these languages are extant.\"§REF§(Tafazzoli 1996, 91) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ In Iraq: \"Parsi-speaking Zoroastrians ruled Iraq, but the local populations were Aramaic-speaking Nestorians and Jews\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Pahlavi", "comment": null, "description": " \"The most widespread languages during the Sasanian era were Middle Persian (or Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, Khotanese Saka and Bactrian; various texts in these languages are extant.\"§REF§(Tafazzoli 1996, 91) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ \"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD.\"§REF§(Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " Greek was used for most written documents.§REF§Joannes, F. 2004. The Age of Empires: Mesopotamia in the first millennium BC. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p252.§REF§ Local languages presumably continued to be spoken (as the Seleucids allowed local religious cults to continue practicing without imposed Hellenistic influences §REF§Kosmin, P. J. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. p685§REF§, but the textual bias is towards Greek written documents." }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Turkish", "comment": null, "description": " The Seljuqs were Turkish speakers. Persian was used by the administration and at court, Arabic was also used alongside it. §REF§Daniela Meneghini 'SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v</a>§REF§ Persian bureaucracy, Turkish military.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 12) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ Seljuks \"were a leading family of the Oghuz peoples (rendered Ghuzz by Muslim writers), a Turkish-speaking tribal federation.\" §REF§(Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " The Seljuqs were Turkish speakers. Persian was used by the administration and at court, Arabic was also used alongside it. §REF§Daniela Meneghini 'SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v</a>§REF§ Persian bureaucracy, Turkish military.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 12) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ Seljuks \"were a leading family of the Oghuz peoples (rendered Ghuzz by Muslim writers), a Turkish-speaking tribal federation.\" §REF§(Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " The Seljuqs were Turkish speakers. Persian was used by the administration and at court, Arabic was also used alongside it. §REF§Daniela Meneghini 'SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v</a>§REF§ Persian bureaucracy, Turkish military.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 12) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ Seljuks \"were a leading family of the Oghuz peoples (rendered Ghuzz by Muslim writers), a Turkish-speaking tribal federation.\" §REF§(Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Hinz 1971, 660§REF§ \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Hinz 1971, 660§REF§ \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Babylonian", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Hinz 1971, 660§REF§ \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§\"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the 'Amorite' world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": " \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§\"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the 'Amorite' world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Babylonian", "comment": null, "description": " \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§\"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the 'Amorite' world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Hurrian", "comment": null, "description": " \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§\"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the 'Amorite' world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Amorite", "comment": null, "description": " \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§\"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the 'Amorite' world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sumerian", "comment": null, "description": " Sumerian in neighbouring Mesopotamia: \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sumerian", "comment": null, "description": " Sumerian in neighbouring Mesopotamia: \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ Proto-Elamite descendent fro Uruk IV writing and developed different signs to the Sumerian of Jemdet Nasr. Susiana was a centre of Proto-Elamite culture along with Tall-i Malyan at Fars.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 91) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. \"simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated.\" It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.§REF§(Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Proto-Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " Sumerian in neighbouring Mesopotamia: \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ Proto-Elamite descendent fro Uruk IV writing and developed different signs to the Sumerian of Jemdet Nasr. Susiana was a centre of Proto-Elamite culture along with Tall-i Malyan at Fars.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 91) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. \"simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated.\" It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.§REF§(Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Norse", "comment": null, "description": " 'At the time of settlement, the Icelanders spoke Old Norse (a Germanic language, in the large Indo-European group of languages), which was then common throughout Scandinavia. By the beginning of the twelfth century linguistic conservatism on the remote island society had introduced significant differences between Icelandic and its Scandinavian neighbors resulting in a distinct Icelandic. Prior to the conversion to Christianity in 1000 A.D., Old Norse was written in a runic alphabet. Runes had a restricted use and few runic inscriptions have survived from Iceland. With Christianity came the Roman alphabet and the expansion of written genres, which thrived in Iceland.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ 'Old Icelandic, a dialect of Old Norse, is also used.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 42§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 42§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Ostrogoths used their traditional language until the downfall of the Italian kingdom.\" §REF§(Wolfram 1990, 324)§REF§ \"Latin was still the language of command, but German or a barbarous blend of Latin or Germanic dialect was more familiar in camp\". §REF§(Burns 1991, 7)§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Germanic", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Ostrogoths used their traditional language until the downfall of the Italian kingdom.\" §REF§(Wolfram 1990, 324)§REF§ \"Latin was still the language of command, but German or a barbarous blend of Latin or Germanic dialect was more familiar in camp\". §REF§(Burns 1991, 7)§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " Latin remained the sole language of administration, diplomacy, liturgy, and culture throughout the period. The population of the Patrimony would have spoken regional dialects, mostly within the Romance language group.§REF§Varvaro, 197-98.§REF§ These dialects would in some places have been influenced by Greek; the Lombard language had disappeared by about 700 CE.§REF§Wickham (2009), 68§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " <i>JFR: Latin was the language of administration, but by this period various dialects of Italian (Romanesco in the city of Rome; Romagnola in Emilia-Romagna; and so forth) were emerging as written languages, besides being the languages of everyday speech.</i>" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " Latin remained the language of administration, culture, and intellectual life during this period. Beginning in the fifteenth century, however, vernacular (proto-Italian) became increasingly accepted as a language for poetry, personal correspondence, and literature. By the end of the period, Italian was used frequently, although the official language of the Church and papal administration remained (and remains today) Latin.§REF§On Latin and the rise of the vernacular, see Black in Najemy, 18-28§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " Indo-European, Italic. Latin and Greek, Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages: §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/image/languages-pre-roman-italy\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§. Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Messapian (Stearns 2001)." }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " Indo-European, Italic. Latin and Greek, Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages: §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/image/languages-pre-roman-italy\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§. Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Messapian (Stearns 2001)." }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " Latin was the lingua franca of the western half of the empire, Greek of the eastern half. Within each half, some native languages survived in use for some time after Roman rule began (e.g., Egyptian and Aramaic in the east; various Celtic languages in parts of the west, and even Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan). Language map showing East/West split: §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&dq=languages+roman+empire&source=gbs_navlinks_s\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a> (Bunson, 2009, 302-303)§REF§. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/image/languages-pre-roman-italy\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>§REF§\"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7).\"§REF§(Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " Latin was the lingua franca of the western half of the empire, Greek of the eastern half. Within each half, some native languages survived in use for some time after Roman rule began (e.g., Egyptian and Aramaic in the east; various Celtic languages in parts of the west, and even Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan). Language map showing East/West split: §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&dq=languages+roman+empire&source=gbs_navlinks_s\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a> (Bunson, 2009, 302-303)§REF§. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/image/languages-pre-roman-italy\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>§REF§\"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7).\"§REF§(Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " Indoeuropean, Italic. Latin and Greek, Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/image/languages-pre-roman-italy\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§. Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Messapian (Stearns 2001). \"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7).\"§REF§(Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " Indoeuropean, Italic. Latin and Greek, Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/image/languages-pre-roman-italy\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§. Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Messapian (Stearns 2001). \"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7).\"§REF§(Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": " \"Latin was the official language of the army (in official documents and orders) throughout the empire.\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 36)§REF§ Latin was the lingua franca of the western half of the empire, Greek of the eastern half. Within each half, some native languages survived in use for some time after Roman rule began (e.g., Egyptian and Aramaic in the east; various Celtic languages in parts of the west, and even Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan). Language map showing East/West split §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&dq=languages+roman+empire&source=gbs_navlinks_s\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a> (Bunson, 2009, 302-303)§REF§. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages. §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moore/rome/image/languages-pre-roman-italy\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>§REF§ \"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7).\"§REF§(Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Latin", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }