Polity Language List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Languages.
GET /api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 630, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-languages/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": " Coded as Hoysalas." }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Prakrit", "comment": null, "description": " The administrative and most widely used language for governance was Prakrit. Following the conversion of King Ashoka to Buddhism, Sanskrit was of increasing importance. Greek and Aramaic translations of edicts also indicate a reliance on local languages. There was no common language to unify the entirety of India. This lack of a common language was somewhat mitigated by the use of two different written scripts, the Brahmi and the Kharoshthi. The regional dialects of prakrit and limited surviving examples makes estimates largely speculative.§REF§Toynbee, Arnold Joseph, and David Churchill Somervell. A study of history: abridgement of volumes i-; by DC Somervell. Oxford University Press, 1948. p. 49§REF§" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": " The administrative and most widely used language for governance was Prakrit. Following the conversion of King Ashoka to Buddhism, Sanskrit was of increasing importance. Greek and Aramaic translations of edicts also indicate a reliance on local languages. There was no common language to unify the entirety of India. This lack of a common language was somewhat mitigated by the use of two different written scripts, the Brahmi and the Kharoshthi. The regional dialects of prakrit and limited surviving examples makes estimates largely speculative.§REF§Toynbee, Arnold Joseph, and David Churchill Somervell. A study of history: abridgement of volumes i-; by DC Somervell. Oxford University Press, 1948. p. 49§REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Urdu", "comment": null, "description": " Persian was the official language of the empire, but Urdu became the language of the elite. Urdu uses an Arabic script derived from Persian. §REF§A. Schimmel, The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture, (2004) p. 259§REF§ §REF§Matthews, P. H. \"Hindi-Urdu.\" In The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. : Oxford University Press, 2007.§REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " Persian was the official language of the empire, but Urdu became the language of the elite. Urdu uses an Arabic script derived from Persian. §REF§A. Schimmel, The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture, (2004) p. 259§REF§ §REF§Matthews, P. H. \"Hindi-Urdu.\" In The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. : Oxford University Press, 2007.§REF§" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), p. 19§REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Kannada", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), p. 19§REF§" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Prakrit", "comment": null, "description": " Prakrit was the official court language, Kannada the language \"popularly spoken\" §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 27§REF§." }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Kannada", "comment": null, "description": " Prakrit was the official court language, Kannada the language \"popularly spoken\" §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 27§REF§." }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 385, "name": "in_sunga_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire", "start_year": -187, "end_year": -65 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Witzel 2006, 472) Michael Witzel. 2006. 'Brahmanical Reactions to Foreign Influences and to Social and Religious Change' in <i>Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE</i>, edited by Patrick Olivelle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 385, "name": "in_sunga_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire", "start_year": -187, "end_year": -65 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Prakrit", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Witzel 2006, 472) Michael Witzel. 2006. 'Brahmanical Reactions to Foreign Influences and to Social and Religious Change' in <i>Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE</i>, edited by Patrick Olivelle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": " Sanskrit. Gupta-Vakataka period: \"The literary products of the age were numerous and varied, and some of the great masterpieces of Sanskrit literature like the Sakuntala, the Raghuvamsa and the Mrichohhakatika were composed in our period.\"§REF§(Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 6-7) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§" }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sanskrit", "comment": null, "description": " The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371§REF§. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13§REF§." }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Telugu", "comment": null, "description": " The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371§REF§. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13§REF§." }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Tamil", "comment": null, "description": " The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371§REF§. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13§REF§." }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Kannada", "comment": null, "description": " The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371§REF§. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13§REF§." }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " Regional languages included Aramaic, Armenian, Berber, Coptic, Georgian, Greek, Kurdish, Persian, Oghuz Turkic. However, Arabic became the language of trade and governance in a vast territory.§REF§Lapidus, Ira A., History of Islamic Society 2nd edition(Cambridge, 2002), p. 44§REF§. In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Roux 1998, 128§REF§ \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ \"Therewas no requirement that records be kept in a specific language; in Sumer they tended to be in Sumerian, though written in the new Akkadian script, whereas in Akkad, they tended to be in Akkadian. Sometimes both languages appeared in the same record, suggesting that the administration considered itself bilingual ...\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sumerian", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Roux 1998, 128§REF§ \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ \"Therewas no requirement that records be kept in a specific language; in Sumer they tended to be in Sumerian, though written in the new Akkadian script, whereas in Akkad, they tended to be in Akkadian. Sometimes both languages appeared in the same record, suggesting that the administration considered itself bilingual ...\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Amorite", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Millard, A. 2000. Amorites. In Bienkowski, P. and Millard, A. (eds.) Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. London: British Museum Press. p.16§REF§§REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.60§REF§" }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Babylonian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Millard, A. 2000. Amorites. In Bienkowski, P. and Millard, A. (eds.) Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. London: British Museum Press. p.16§REF§§REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.60§REF§" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 482, "name": "iq_dynasty_e", "long_name": "Dynasty of E", "start_year": -979, "end_year": -732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mesopotamian Religions", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sumerian", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Cunningham 2013, 95-97§REF§" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": " \"Sumerian continued to be the language of scholarship but was no longer spoken; Akkadian, in contrast, was used for international communication from Anatolia to Elam.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 84) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Aramaic", "comment": null, "description": " Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, Aramaic, Eastern, Central, Northeastern §REF§(Ethnologue 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=aii\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Sumerian", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Wygnańska 2007, 29§REF§ Shulgi could write in both Sumerian and Akkadian.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Wygnańska 2007, 29§REF§ Shulgi could write in both Sumerian and Akkadian.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " However, some researchers believed that Sumerian language was in use in this period. §REF§Roux 1998, 70§REF§" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Persian", "comment": null, "description": " 'The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - \"Old Persian\" - a member of the Indo-European language family'.§REF§(Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.§REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">[5]</a>)§REF§ Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Aramaic", "comment": null, "description": " 'The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - \"Old Persian\" - a member of the Indo-European language family'.§REF§(Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.§REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">[5]</a>)§REF§ Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " 'The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - \"Old Persian\" - a member of the Indo-European language family'.§REF§(Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.§REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">[5]</a>)§REF§ Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " 'The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - \"Old Persian\" - a member of the Indo-European language family'.§REF§(Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.§REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">[5]</a>)§REF§ Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Egyptian", "comment": null, "description": " 'The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - \"Old Persian\" - a member of the Indo-European language family'.§REF§(Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.§REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">[5]</a>)§REF§ Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Qaraquyunlu and Aqquyunlu tribal entities which succeeded the Timurids on the region’s political scene pursued a similarly inclusive 'project': Islam was their religion, their tribal military levies were Turks, their administrators were Tajiks and their cultural discourse was Persian.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Old Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. \"simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated.\" It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.§REF§(Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"The fact that a number of the objects attributable to Puzur-Inshushinak were inscribed in Elamite as well as Akkadian suggests that, if he didn't come from the highlands, then Puzur-Inshushinak was at pains to integrate both the highland and lowland regions to which he laid claim.\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 114) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": " \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§ Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. \"simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated.\" It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.§REF§(Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"The fact that a number of the objects attributable to Puzur-Inshushinak were inscribed in Elamite as well as Akkadian suggests that, if he didn't come from the highlands, then Puzur-Inshushinak was at pains to integrate both the highland and lowland regions to which he laid claim.\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 114) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " Persian was the mothertongue, the first Buyid rulers were probably not fluent in Arabic, but Adud al-Daula was known as an Arabic poet. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.286§REF§" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " Persian was the mothertongue, the first Buyid rulers were probably not fluent in Arabic, but Adud al-Daula was known as an Arabic poet. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.286§REF§" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": " \"Alexander had apparently hellenized Susa to the extent that the language of administration was Greek, the form of city-state government was Greek, and even the ethnic composition of the area was partially Greek.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Mongolian", "comment": null, "description": " The original Ilkhans were Mongols and therefore spoke Mongolian. Manuscripts were written in Persian and Arabic. §REF§Stefano Carboni, 'IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": " The original Ilkhans were Mongols and therefore spoke Mongolian. Manuscripts were written in Persian and Arabic. §REF§Stefano Carboni, 'IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": " The original Ilkhans were Mongols and therefore spoke Mongolian. Manuscripts were written in Persian and Arabic. §REF§Stefano Carboni, 'IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ After sources reappear mid-14th BCE (after this period): \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ After sources reappear mid-14th BCE (after this period): \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Elamite", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_language", "language": "Akkadian", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ After mid-14th BCE: \"The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" } ] }