Polity Duration List

HTTP 200 OK
Allow: GET, HEAD, OPTIONS
Content-Type: application/json
Vary: Accept

{
    "count": 519,
    "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=10",
    "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=8",
    "results": [
        {
            "id": 588,
            "polity": {
                "id": 638,
                "name": "so_tunni_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Tunni Sultanate",
                "start_year": 800,
                "end_year": 1200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 800,
            "polity_year_to": 1200,
            "comment": null,
            "description": ""
        },
        {
            "id": 589,
            "polity": {
                "id": 639,
                "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1250,
                "end_year": 1700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1250,
            "polity_year_to": 1700,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "There are conflicting sources regarding dating. While Njoku has claimed that the break-up of the Ajuran Sultanate was sometime in the early 18th century without mentioning specific dates, Mukhtar noted that the Ajuran Sultanate began in the mid-13th century and ended at the end of the 17th century. “By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Ajuuran state had broken apart under constant Portuguese harassments.” §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§ Mukhtar wrote, “The Ajuran was an imamate or dynasty that emerged in Somalia to control the Shabelle valley from Qallafo, on the upper Shabelle, to the shores of the Indian Ocean, from Mareeg on the central Somali coast to the Kenyan frontiers in the southwest, thus controlling most of the south-central regions of contemporary Somalia, from about the mid-13th to the late 17th centuries.” §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 35) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 590,
            "polity": {
                "id": 640,
                "name": "so_habr_yunis",
                "long_name": "Habr Yunis",
                "start_year": 1300,
                "end_year": 1886
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1300,
            "polity_year_to": 1886,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The following quote does not give an exact date of the origin of the Isaaq Sultanate but gives an approximation. “But the first major impetus to Somali migration which tradition records is the arrival from Arabia of Sheikh Isma’il Jabarti about the tenth or eleventh century and the expansion of his descendants, the Darod clans, from their early seat in the north-east corner of Somaliland. This cannot be dated with certainty, but the period suggested here accords well with the sequence of subsequent events. It was followed perhaps some two centuries later by the arrival from Arabia or Sheikh Isaq, founder of the Isaq Somali, who settled to the west of the Darod at Mait where his domed tomb stands today, and who like his predecessor Darod, married with the local Dir Somali.”§REF§ (Lewis 2002, 22-23) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection §REF§ “This statement demonstrated [that the United Kingdom] did not regard the tribes of Somaliland, with which it had concluded the Agreements in 1886, as sovereign, or even as part-sovereign, entities which could be recognised as persons in international law but that it considered them as no more than subjects of the British Crown.” §REF§ (Albaharna et. al. 1986, 88) Albaharna, Husain M. 1986. The Legal Status of the Arabian Gulf States: A Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G6NP7HE4/collection §REF§ It is important to note, that while Habr Yunis was part of the Isaaq Sultanate, it did however break from Isaaq in the mid-nineteenth century along with Habr Awal and Habr Jeclo due to internal conflict and disputes regarding trade routes. “The key figure among the Somalis in this affair was Haji Shirmarke Ali Salih (d.1861) who had begun his long and remarkable career as the friend and unofficial agent of the British by rescuing the survivors of the Mary Ann in 1825 […] The fact that Leigh’s 1838 journal fails to mention him may mean that he had temporarily lost influence in Berbera and was concentrating his activities upon Zeila, of which he was to become governor (for the Turkish Empire)in about 1843. But even after this Shirmarke was deeply involved in Berbera affairs intervening in disputes among the lineages of the Habr Awal clan section for supremacy in the port. Shirmarke himself claimed direct decent from the founder of the great Isaq clan group and was the dominant political figure (although not the titular hereditary leader) of the Habr Yunis (Girhajis) clan. By the time of Burton’s expedition, all the Awal had come to dislike Shirmarke, it seems. This was probably because he had tried to make Zeila rather than Berbera the main outlet for the Harar caravan trade.” §REF§ (Bridges 1986, 682-683) Bridges, Roy. 1986. ‘The Visit of Frederick Forbes to the Somali Coast in 1833.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 19:4. Pp 679-691. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G3PNH843/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 591,
            "polity": {
                "id": 641,
                "name": "et_gomma_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Gomma",
                "start_year": 1780,
                "end_year": 1886
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1780,
            "polity_year_to": 1886,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The reigning family was the Awallini, who claimed descent from a Somali shaikh called Nur Husain who emigrated from Maqdishu about 1780 and settled among them as their qallichcha or magician-priest, whilst according to another account the family was descended from a Muslim who came from Gojam.” §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, J. Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection §REF§ “Gomma was conquered for Menelik by Besha Abue in 1886.” §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, J. Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 592,
            "polity": {
                "id": 642,
                "name": "so_geledi_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Sultanate of Geledi",
                "start_year": 1750,
                "end_year": 1911
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1750,
            "polity_year_to": 1911,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In 1750 the Geledi Sultanate (later known as Afgoy) emerges in Ay Ulay in the southern Shabelle River valley.” §REF§ (Njoku 2013, xxiii) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§ “In 1911 a great shir or assembly of the clans from across the Shebelle was held at Geledi; in which twelve thousand men joined from the Garre, the Gal Jal’el, the (Habash) shiidle, the five Dafet clans, Hillibey, Murunsade and others. The government’s plans to occupy the area were explained to them and accepted without further resistance; from there the Italians went on to occupy the upper Shebelle and the inter-river plain, and by 1914 the boundaries  of the colony were approximately what they were to remain until 1934.” §REF§ (Luling 1971, 202) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 593,
            "polity": {
                "id": 643,
                "name": "et_showa_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Shoa Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1108,
                "end_year": 1285
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1108,
            "polity_year_to": 1285,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Within the consulted literature there seems to be different dates for when the Sultanate of Shoa originated. “We have seen above the early formation of the Sultanate of Shoa, which was already established by the first years of the twelfth century. This sultanate derived its origin from the well-known Mahzumite family of Mecca, and it lasted until the last quarter of the thirteenth century.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ “Then, in the year 1108, it is reported that there took place ‘the conversion of Gbbah’ to Islam, in the reign of Sultan Harab’ir. It has not been possible to give a secure identification of the area (or people) called Gbbah. But Trimingham has recently made an interesting suggestion that the term may refer to a people who were probably ancestral to those later known as Argobba. This is a very tempting suggestion and, geographically, it makes very good sense. The Argobba were a Semitic-speaking group who lived in the eastern foothills of the Shoan plateau in the Harar area. Their Semitic language also makes them a very good candidate for the proposed identification, because an analysis of the names of the princes in the chronical has also convinced Cerulli that an Ethiopian Semitic language was spoke in the Sultanate of Shoa.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ “The territories of Ifat and Mahzumite Shoa had common frontiers, and in 1271 ‘Umar Walasma gave a daughter in marriage to one of the quarrelsome Mahzumite princes of Shoa. The marriage alliance did not last for long, and Ifat and Shoa plunged into a series of armed conflicts which resulted in the complete annexation of the Sultanate of Shoa by ‘Umar Walasma in 1285.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 594,
            "polity": {
                "id": 645,
                "name": "et_hadiya_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Hadiya Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1300,
                "end_year": 1680
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1300,
            "polity_year_to": 1680,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The exact date of the start of the Hadiya Sultanate is not specified in the consulted sources, but it is first mentioned in manuscript having been conquered by the Ethiopian Kingdom in 1316-17. “In a manuscript written on the island of Hayq, the monarch states that, after conquering Damot around 1316-7, he proceeded to Hadeya, and adds ‘God gave me all the people of Hadeya, men and women without number, whom I exiled into another area.’” §REF§ (Pankhurst 1997, 77) Pankhurst, Richard. 1997. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/F5TE8HH5/collection §REF§ “By the late 17th century, the king of Hadeya had submitted to the rule of Abyssinia and many people embraced Christianity.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 201) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 595,
            "polity": {
                "id": 646,
                "name": "so_ifat_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Ifat Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1280,
                "end_year": 1375
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1280,
            "polity_year_to": 1375,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Ifat was the second sultanate to be formed in the region of Shawa, in what is currently central Ethiopia. It was Umar Walasma who founded the Walasma dynasty (1280-1520s), which spearheaded Muslim resistance to the expanding Christian Kingdom.” §REF§ (Hassen 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Hassen, Mohammed, 2016. ‘Ifat Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXDQBFFT/library §REF§While the Walasma dynasty carried on into the 16th century, this was under the Adal Sultanate which had absorbed the former Ifat Sultanate. The Adal Sultanate was founded by the Ifat ruler Haqadin II in 1374/5 which is the final end date of the Ifat Sultanate. “Remaining embers of the spirit of Muslim resistance in Ifat were revealed when Haqadin II (1363-1374), the grandson of Sabradin, declared Ifat’s freedom from Chrisitan domination […] Ifat was finally eclipsed and replaced by the Kingdom of Adal, where the leaders of the Walasma dynasty continued to keep alive the spirit of Muslim resistance up to the 1520s, when the Muslims turned the tide against the Christians in Ethiopia.” §REF§ (Hassen 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Hassen, Mohammed, 2016. ‘Ifat Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXDQBFFT/library §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 596,
            "polity": {
                "id": 647,
                "name": "er_medri_bahri",
                "long_name": "Medri Bahri",
                "start_year": 1310,
                "end_year": 1889
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1310,
            "polity_year_to": 1889,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In 750 A.D., the Bejas established five independent kingdoms: Nagash, Belgin, Bazin, Jarin and Quaitala. These kingdoms exercised political domination in Eritrea and northeastern Sudan until the fourteenth and fifteenth century. After the fourteenth century, Eritrea came to be known as the country of Medri-Bahri (Land of the Sea).” §REF§ (Cliffe and Basil 1988, 12) Cliffe, Lionel and Basil, Davidson. 1988. The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZBEU6QM6/collection §REF§ “In 1885, Italy took possession of the Eritrean coast with the encouragement of Great Britain, which was interested in Italian collaboration in its fight against the Mahdi of the Sudan. The Eritrean resistance collapsed only after a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation had been concluded in 1889 between the King of Italy and Emperor Menelik of Showa, the predecessor of Emperor Halie Selassie.” §REF§ (Cervenka 1977, 38) Cervenka, Zdenek. 1977. ‘Eritrea: Struggle for Self-Determination or Succession?’. Africa Spectrum. Vol 12:1. Pp 37-48. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/A5UBT4ZQ/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 597,
            "polity": {
                "id": 648,
                "name": "so_majeerteen_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Majeerteen Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1750,
                "end_year": 1926
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1750,
            "polity_year_to": 1926,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Although the Majerteen Sultanate was founded in the second half of the eighteenth century, it only came into prominence in the nineteenth century following the time in power of the famous Boqor Isman Mahamud.” §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§ “When Italy occupied the two Majerteen Sultanates of Alula and Hobiya in 1926 and exiled the Sultans Boqor Isman Mohamud and Yusif Ali to Mogadishu, many Darood fled to the south.” §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 71) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 598,
            "polity": {
                "id": 649,
                "name": "et_funj_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Funj Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1504,
                "end_year": 1820
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1504,
            "polity_year_to": 1820,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The first historically known Funj ruler, Amara Dunqas, defeated the Christian kingdom of Alwa in 1504, and founded Sinnar as the capital of a Funj kingdom which reached north to the third cataract, south to the foothills of Ethiopia, and east to the desert of Kordofan.” §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 429) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection §REF§ “The Funj kingdom was finally brought to an end by the Egypitian conquest of 1820-21.” .” §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 432) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 599,
            "polity": {
                "id": 650,
                "name": "et_kaffa_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa",
                "start_year": 1390,
                "end_year": 1897
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1390,
            "polity_year_to": 1897,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Orent discusses the Kingdom of Kafa within distinct periods: 1) The Pre-Centralization Period 2) Formation of the Kingdom of Kafa 3) The Kafa Kingdom of Expansion 4) The Amhara-Kafa Period. “The history and origins of the Kafa Kingdom are complex, but at least four distinct periods are discernible, although the exact dates are by no means fixed […] the formation of the Kingdom of Kafa (1390?-1674).” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ “Until 1897 the Kafa had their own kingdom with a monarch and councilors of state. During the expansion period of Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913) Kafa lost its sovereignty.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 600,
            "polity": {
                "id": 651,
                "name": "et_gumma_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Gumma",
                "start_year": 1800,
                "end_year": 1897
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1800,
            "polity_year_to": 1897,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The kingdom of Guma arose at the start to the nineteenth century, one of a cluster of small kingdoms in a region known as Gibe.” §REF§ (Belcher, 2005) Belcher, Stephen. 2005. African Myths of Origin. London: Penguin Books. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KSNW8HVH/collection §REF§ “Shortly before the conquest of Menelik these states headed by Guma began to raid the pagan states of Leqa Horda, Leqa Billo, Nole Kabba, and Hanna Gafare, who leagued together as ‘the Four Pagans’ (arfa Oromata) which caused the other coalition to distinguish itself by the title of ‘the Four Muslims’ (arfa naggadota). All these small Muslim and pagan kingdoms were conquered by Menelik between 1882 and 1897 […]” §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 601,
            "polity": {
                "id": 652,
                "name": "et_harar_emirate",
                "long_name": "Emirate of Harar",
                "start_year": 1650,
                "end_year": 1875
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1650,
            "polity_year_to": 1875,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Founded about the middle of the seventeenth century by Ali b. Dawud, the sultanate of Harar, more than any other political unit which grew out of the ruins of Awsa, could be considered as the successor of Adal.” §REF§ (Abir 2008, 552) Abir, Mordecai. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 537-577. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Abir/titleCreatorYear/items/JHH9VH96/item-list §REF§ “During 1875-1885 Egypt occupied Harar. At its height, the Egyptian garrison and civil population numbered some 6,500 persons. On 25 April 1885, the last Egyptian departed Harar. However, the town did not return to government control until 13 January 1887, when Menelik II’s forces occupied the city.” §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 207) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 602,
            "polity": {
                "id": 653,
                "name": "et_aussa_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Early Sultanate of Aussa",
                "start_year": 1734,
                "end_year": 1895
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1734,
            "polity_year_to": 1895,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Two end dates are given to this polity. The first date of 1895 is when the Sultanate came under nominal Ethiopian rule, and the second date of 1936 is when the Sultanate came under nominal Italian rule. An expert should be consulted to confirm whether either date marks enough of a turning point in the regions history to warrant choosing it as the end date for this phase of the polity’s history. “Farther north, the imamate of Awsa passed by the middle of the seventeenth century into the hands of immigrant Sharifs of the Ba-Alawu family of the Hadhramaut. This dynasty, however was unable to protect Awsa from Galla and Dankali raids. Finally, in the first decades of the eighteenth century, Awsa was overrun by the Mudaito tribe of the Asaimara branch of the Danakil, who formed a new Mudaito dynasty of Awsa.” §REF§ (Abir 2008, 554) Abir, M. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JHH9VH96/library §REF§ “The Aussa Sultanate or Afar Sultanate succeeded the Imamate of Aussa […] The sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafu in 1734.” §REF§ (Mekonnen 2013, 47) Mekonnen, Yohannes K. 2013. Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture. New Africa Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QQ9ZECMI/collection §REF§ \"As a result, Menilik’s army invaded the sultanate of Aussa in 1895 and made the Sultan tribute paying to the central government. But even then, the central government did not actively involve in the internal affairs of the Sultanate of Aussa. On the other hand, some writers claimed that the Emperor used the Italian issue as a pretext to occupy Aussa land.” §REF§ (Hassen 2010, 18) Hassen, Mohammed. 2010. ‘Indigenous Governance among the Southern Afar (ca. 1815- 1974), Ethiopia’. Ethiopian Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities. Vol. 7:2. Pp 1-25. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9ERK5FI7/collection §REF§ “During the Second Italian-Ethiopian War (1935-1936), Sultan Mahammad Yayyo again agreed to cooperate with the Italian invaders.” §REF§ (Mekonnen 2013, 47) Mekonnen, Yohannes K. 2013. Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture. New Africa Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QQ9ZECMI/collection §REF§ Marcus that Italy declared itself the new ruler of Ethiopia in 1936.\"[O]n 9 May, Mussolini proclaimed the Ethiopian Italian Empire before an enthusiastic throng in Tome. On 11 June, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani was named viceroy of Ethiopia[...]. The victory, however, remained incomplete; [...] With the main units gone and many of the top officers dead, the war against the Italians transformed itself into an insurgency with a changing cast of characters and fighters, depending on circumstance and opportunity. The Italians had strategic control, dominating the cities, towns, and major caravan routes. However, from rural Ethiopia, wherever nationalism had been nurtured, came the arbeynotch, or patriots, to harry Italian outposts and patrols and sometimes to test the strength of garrisons in the larger towns. Never in the quinquennium of rule did the fascists feel secure in Ethiopia, and their anxiety came to border on neurosis.\" §REF§ (Marcus 2002, 147-148) Marcus, Harold. 2002. A History of Ethiopia. Oakland: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TRKKZJ3T/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 603,
            "polity": {
                "id": 654,
                "name": "so_isaaq_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Isaaq Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1300,
                "end_year": 1886
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1750,
            "polity_year_to": 1886,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB - Quote needed for start date.\r\n\r\n“This statement demonstrated [that the United Kingdom] did not regard the tribes of Somaliland, with which it had concluded the Agreements in 1886, as sovereign, or even as part-sovereign, entities which could be recognised as persons in international law but that it considered them as no more than subjects of the British Crown.” §REF§ (Albaharna et. al. 1986, 88) Albaharna, Husain M. 1986. The Legal Status of the Arabian Gulf States: A Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G6NP7HE4/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 604,
            "polity": {
                "id": 655,
                "name": "ni_proto_yoruba",
                "long_name": "Proto-Yoruba",
                "start_year": 301,
                "end_year": 649
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 301,
            "polity_year_to": 649,
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 605,
            "polity": {
                "id": 657,
                "name": "ni_formative_yoruba",
                "long_name": "Late Formative Yoruba",
                "start_year": 650,
                "end_year": 1049
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 650,
            "polity_year_to": 1049,
            "comment": null,
            "description": ""
        },
        {
            "id": 606,
            "polity": {
                "id": 658,
                "name": "ni_kwararafa",
                "long_name": "Kwararafa",
                "start_year": 596,
                "end_year": 1820
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 596,
            "polity_year_to": 1820,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Dates vary a lot on the literature, but earliest date suggested seems to be sixth century: “According to a Jukun tradition popular amongst the Wapan of Wukari, Kwararafa was established in 596AD by Aku Awudu and lasted for about 1000years before its disintegration. The tradition has it that Aku Agbukenjo was the last ruler of Kwararafa state before it was relocated to Wukari under the leadership of Aku 73 Katakpa. Jukun, under the leadership of the ‘Wapan’ of present day Wukari, were believed to be the architect of the emergence and growth of the Kwararafa. In this regard, the Jukun people are believed to have played a significant role in the Kwararafa civilization, which today influences the history of most of the people, not only in the Benue valley, but other parts of Nigeria at large. This claim has continued to live with the Jukun people of Wukari till date.” §REF§Zhema, S. (2017). A History of the Social and Political Organization of the Jukun of Wukari Division, c.1596–1960 [Benue State University]: 72–73. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U667CC36/collection§REF§ “C.K. Meek further notes that the earliest reference to Kwararafa within historical times is contained in the Kano Chronicle. In this regard, he asserts that in the reign of Yaji (1349-85), the Kwararafa people were the only pegan tribes from Biyri to Fanda who refused to submit to this authority.70 This story gives an impression that Kwararafa was an important State as early as the latter part of the fourteenth century.” §REF§Zhema, S. (2017). A History of the Social and Political Organization of the Jukun of Wukari Division, c.1596–1960 [Benue State University]: 74. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U667CC36/collection§REF§ “The Jukun-speaking peoples of Northern Nigeria are believed to be the descendants of the ruling stratum of the powerful Kororofa ' empire ' (probably a loose federation of tribes), which dominated the Benue Valley from about the fourteenth century to the middle of the eighteenth. Wukari, the present home of the majority of Jukun, was founded as a new capital after the break-up of Kororofa, and represents its successor state on a considerably diminished scale.” §REF§ Young, M. W. (1966). The Divine Kingship of the Jukun: A Re-Evaluation of Some Theories. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 36(2), 135–153: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NTI9GQMF/collection§REF§ Existed in the sixteenth century: “The mysterious state of Kwararafa threads its way through Hausa and Borno history; it is a ‘pagan’ state of the south, full of symbolic significance in Hausa perceptions of their own past. Korau and Amina, among others, are said to have waged war against Kwararafa, which, in its turn, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries repeatedly invaded the Hausa kingdoms but, oddly, without any lasting political or cultural result. The mais of Borno fought similar wars with the ‘Kwana’. These traditions are generally associated with the Benue valley people known in written sources as Jukun (a Hausa ethonym), who call themselves Wapan and who are widely known as Apa. The Aku of the Jukun settlement at Wukari is one of Africa’s best known instances of sacred kingship.” §REF§Isichei, E. (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press: 235. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§ “By 1820, a Jukun dynasty based at Wukari, south of the Benue, had taken control of what was left of the Kwararafa state. With this transformation, the martial state of Kwararafa had finally come to an end. The Jukun inherited the political power of Kwararafa, but not its martial tradition. The far-flung confederacy had become the homogenous Jukun kingdom of Wukari.” §REF§Shillington, K., ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). Fitzroy Dearborn: 248. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/collection§REF§ “Strange to say, no tradition exists to-day as to the fall of this city and empire; even the name Kororofa has disappeared, though it seems to have persisted down to about 1860.” §REF§Ruxton, F. H. (1908). Notes on the Tribes of the Muri Province. Journal of the Royal African Society, 7(28), 374–386: 379. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2AXUQGFB/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 607,
            "polity": {
                "id": 659,
                "name": "ni_allada_k",
                "long_name": "Allada",
                "start_year": 1100,
                "end_year": 1724
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1100,
            "polity_year_to": 1724,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Oral traditions indicate that the first settlers in the region were Aja speakers who arrived sometime in the 12th and 13th centuries from the area of Tado, which lay along the banks of the Mono River to the west.” §REF§Aderinto, Saheed. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC- CLIO, 2017: 7-8. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EB5TWDG7/collection§REF§ “The kingdom of Allada was the most powerful state in the Aja country during the seventeenth century. The Fon kingdom, later known as Dahomey, was founded, probably in the early seventeenth century, by a prince of the royal family of Aliada who had contested unsuccessfully for the Allada throne. In 1724 Dahomey, under its king Agaja, conquered Allada and displaced it as the leading power in the area.” §REF§Law, R. C. C. “THE FALL OF ALLADA, 1724—AN IDEOLOGICAL REVOLUTION?” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, vol. 5, no. 1, 1969, pp. 157–63: 157. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EWX34U5S/collection§REF§ “By the early seventeenth century, Allada was the leading Aja polity. It first appeared on a map of the 1480s but was clearly more ancient. In the mid-seventeenth century, the coastal polity of Whydah, previously subject to Allada, gained its independence and from 1671 on, it dominated the external trade of the coast. The total demographic impact of the Atlantic slave trade is a complex and much disputed question, but there can be little doubt that it caused regional depopulation in some areas. Seventeenth-century observers stressed the density of the population round Whydah, whereas in the nineteenth century they were struck by its absence, and elephants — once extinct in the area — had returned.” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 348–349. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§ “We have seen that after its fall in 1724 Allada retained or recovered its position as the source of true kings, since the rulers of Dahomey legitimated their rule by reference to their descent from Allada. But this, obviously, did not make Allada the capital of the Aja country, or the Ajahutonon the 'real' ruler of Dahomey. One should be careful to distinguish between ritual precedence and effective political power.” §REF§Law, R. C. C. “THE FALL OF ALLADA, 1724—AN IDEOLOGICAL REVOLUTION?” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, vol. 5, no. 1, 1969, pp. 157–63: 163. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EWX34U5S/collection§REF§ About Agaja, of Dahomey: “His attack on Allada, the ancient Aja kingdom to the south, on March 30, 1724, marked the beginning of the Dahomean domination of Aja and the effective collapse of the commonwealth system in the region.” §REF§Aderinto, Saheed. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC- CLIO, 2017: 55. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EB5TWDG7/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 608,
            "polity": {
                "id": 661,
                "name": "ni_oyo_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́",
                "start_year": 1601,
                "end_year": 1835
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1601,
            "polity_year_to": 1835,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Another possible end date is 1896; last independent Alaafin (Adeyemi I Alowolodu) ruled 1876–1905, but from ~1888 Oyo was essentially a British vassal state/protectorate, and in 1896 it ceased to be regarded as a distinct power. It could be argued that the death of Alaafin Oluewu in 1835 (or 1837, when the capital was abandoned/moved; no Alaafin for those two intervening years) is a clearer endpoint. “The Old Oyo Empire […] rose to prominence in the 17th century and reached its peak in the 18th century. When the empire finally collapsed in 1835, it was territorially the largest and the most politically powerful Yoruba kingdom ever. Scholars do not agree on the extent of the size of the Old Oyo Empire. However, However, what is certain is that at the height of its power in the 18th century, the eastern end of the empire extended from the coast near Badagry northward along the western boundary of Ijebu territories”. §REF§Aderinto, Saheed. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC-CLIO, 2017: 244. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EB5TWDG7/note/U7W4UF33/ collection§REF§ “The final end to a once glorious Yoruba empire came around 1835 in the Eleduwe War, when the capital of Oyo fell to the jihadist. It was completely sacked, with the entire population dispersed over other Yoruba territories. Historians of Yoruba agree that the collapse of the Old Oyo Empire left a political vacuum in the region and paved the way for a series of wars and revolutions that did not come to an end until the last decade of the 19th century, when the British imposed colonial rule on much of Yorubaland.” §REF§Aderinto, Saheed. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC-CLIO, 2017: 246–247. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EB5TWDG7/note/U7W4UF33/collection§REF§  Some disagreement over when the empire should be defined as ending in the 19th/what the empire’s boundaries were at that time. “The kingdom of Oyo emerged as the most extensive and prominent of all the Yoruba states. Oyo’s vastness, power and prominence earned it the legendry status of an empire. It subsequently declined and collapsed in the eighteenth century before British colonial intervention carved parts of the upper and lower Niger into what became Nigeria. Historians differentiate it from what remained of its rump after it collapsed by designating it as the Old Oyo Empire.” §REF§Ejiogu, EC. ‘State Building in the Niger Basin in the Common Era and Beyond, 1000–Mid 1800s: The Case of Yorubaland’. Journal of Asian and African Studies vol.46, no.6 (1 December 2011): 597. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H2CJNHP/collection§REF§ NB There was an interval during which the Nupe occupied Oyo territory, approx. 1535–1600 or 1608. The Oyo ruling dynasty took refuge in neighbouring Borgu, but re-established the Empire in an even more centralised and expansive form. We’ve defined the period before this as the Early Oyo Empire, and after as the Late Oyo Empire."
        },
        {
            "id": 609,
            "polity": {
                "id": 662,
                "name": "ni_whydah_k",
                "long_name": "Whydah",
                "start_year": 1671,
                "end_year": 1727
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1671,
            "polity_year_to": 1727,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“By the early seventeenth century, Allada was the leading Aja polity. It first appeared on a map of the 1480s but was clearly more ancient. In the mid-seventeenth century, the coastal polity of Whydah, previously subject to Allada, gained its independence and from 1671 on, it dominated the external trade of the coast. The total demographic impact of the Atlantic slave trade is a complex and much disputed question, but there can be little doubt that it caused regional depopulation in some areas. Seventeenth-century observers stressed the density of the population round Whydah, whereas in the nineteenth century they were struck by its absence, and elephants — once extinct in the area — had returned.” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 348–349. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§ “Originally tributary to Allada, it expanded dramatically under Wegbaja (c. 1680-1716), whom tradition remembers as the first king, and still more so under his successor Agaja (c. 1716–40), who conquered Allada and Whydah, in 1724 and 1727 respectively.” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 349. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§ “The Kingdom of Whydah (Hueda),1 situated on the \"Slave Coast\" of West Africa (in what is today the Republic of Benin), emerged as an independent power only in the late seventeenth century. Earlier, it had apparently been an unimportant dependency of the larger kingdom of Allada, in the interior to the north-east. From the 1670s, however, it developed into a major center of the Atlantic slave trade, rivalling and then eclipsing Allada as the principal supplier of slaves in the region. Its political and commercial florescence proved to be brief, falling before the expansion of the hinterland kingdom of Dahomey in the 1720s. The Dahomians, having already conquered Allada in 1724, invaded Whydah in 1727, inflicting devastating destruction upon the country and driving out its king and much of its population into exile to the west.2 In the years preceding this conquest in 1727, Whydah had suffered protracted and bitter internal disputes, degenerating on more than one occasion into actual civil war, and these domestic divisions clearly contributed to its failure to present any effective resistance to the Dahomian conquest.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 201. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 610,
            "polity": {
                "id": 663,
                "name": "ni_oyo_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Oyo",
                "start_year": 1300,
                "end_year": 1535
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1300,
            "polity_year_to": 1535,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "1300 has been tentatively selected as the middle option between the very earliest estimates and the latest ones. \"It is not possible to assign a date to the foundation of the Oyo kingdom. The foundation of Oyo has been attributed, by different writers, to the tenth century, to around 1300, and to the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century. But there is as yet no worthwhile evidence on this point.\" §REF§(Law 1977: 33)§REF§ \"If the identification of Tsoede with Johnson's Lajomo is accepted,81 then this would bear out the suggestion above that Oyo-ile fell to the Nupe in or about 1535, and that the reoccupation of Oyo-ile was achieved, after the lessening of the Nupe menace, in or about 1610.\"§REF§(Smith 1965: 74)§REF§ Note also the following: \"It seems the occupation of Old Oyo by thriving agricultural communities was well in place around the ninth century A.D. (Agbaje-Williams, 1983), and by the fifteenth century, a fully fledged town had evolved and was on the path of becoming the capital of the largest empire south of River Niger (Soper and Darling, 1980).\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 153)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 611,
            "polity": {
                "id": 664,
                "name": "ni_proto_yoruboid",
                "long_name": "Proto-Yoruboid",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": 300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -300,
            "polity_year_to": 300,
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 612,
            "polity": {
                "id": 665,
                "name": "ni_aro",
                "long_name": "Aro",
                "start_year": 1690,
                "end_year": 1902
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1690,
            "polity_year_to": 1902,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In describing the character of Aro influence, Ekejuba (1972:14) went further to state: The Aro confederacy (1690–1902) was a slave trading political union orchestrated by the Igbo sub-group, the Aro people, centered in Arochukwu in present day southeastern Nigerian. Their influence and presence was (sic) distributed across Eastern Nigerian into parts of present day Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. The Arochukwu kingdom was an economical, political and a (sic) oracular center as it was home of the powerful long juju oracle, the Aro king Eze Aro, and highest priest.” §REF§Nwaezeigwe, D. N. T. (2013). THE ARO AND THE CONCEPT OF ARO-OKIGBO: FACTS AND FALACIES OF A HISTRIONIC IGBO HEGEMONY. 15, 12: 6.https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TU5APW74/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 613,
            "polity": {
                "id": 666,
                "name": "ni_sokoto_cal",
                "long_name": "Sokoto Caliphate",
                "start_year": 1804,
                "end_year": 1904
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1804,
            "polity_year_to": 1904,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In 1804, Shaykh Uthman Dan Fodio and his jamaa lunched an Islamic Jihad in the Western Sudan also called Bilad Sudan but now roughly Western Africa.” §REF§Okene, Ahmed Adam, and Shukri B. Ahmad. “Ibn Khaldun, Cyclical Theory and the Rise and Fall of Sokoto Caliphate, Nigeria West Africa.” International Journal of Business and Social Science, vol. 2, no. 4, 2011, pp. 80–91: 84. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/H7J2NC37/collection§REF§ “The Sokoto caliphate originated in 1804, when the Fulbe Islamic scholar Shehu Usumanu dan Fodio declared an Islamic reformist movement, or jihad, in northern Nigeria. The state that he founded eventually spread to encompass all of northern Nigeria, the northern Republic of Benin, and southern Niger, with the Shehu as caliph, or spiritual and political leader. In 1806 the various groups of seminomadic pastoral Fulbe residing in northern Cameroon joined the jihad under the leadership of the respected Islamic scholar Modibo Adama. The region was incorporated into the larger caliphate as the emirate of Adamawa, named after its founder.” §REF§Delancey, Mark D. “The Spread of the Sooro: Symbols of Power in the Sokoto Caliphate.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 71, no. 2, 2012, pp. 168–75: 168–169. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/87XHFF23/collection§REF§ “Nevertheless, before the British began a piecemeal conquest and occupation of the part of the Caliphate which culminated in 1904, exactly a century after it was established, the Caliphate in line with the cyclical theory of Ibn Khaldun could be said to be in the state of weakness and decline.” §REF§Okene, Ahmed Adam, and Shukri B. Ahmad. “Ibn Khaldun, Cyclical Theory and the Rise and Fall of Sokoto Caliphate, Nigeria West Africa.” International Journal of Business and Social Science, vol. 2, no. 4, 2011, pp. 80–91: 87. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/H7J2NC37/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 614,
            "polity": {
                "id": 667,
                "name": "ni_igala_k",
                "long_name": "Igala",
                "start_year": 1600,
                "end_year": 1900
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1600,
            "polity_year_to": 1900,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Clifford’s summary of this period is worth noting. In his words 'there was in those early days no form of central organisation, the tribe consisting of a number of moitiés each under its own patriach or petty chieftain, these latter, nine in number, were the primitive fathers of Igala'. It is against this background that Igala as from the 1600 AD metamorphosed into the dynastic era.” §REF§Erim, E. O. “FORMATIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE-FORMATION IN MIDDLE BELT OF NIGERIA BEFORE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, vol. 12, no. 1/2, 1983, pp. 43–49: 47-48. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MSQPBNIA/collection§REF§ “So began the regime of the Atas at Idah. It is not possible to fix any reliable date for this event, but we shall not be very far wrong in assigning the colonisation of the Agatu-Ocheku-Amara area to the early part of the 17th century, and Ayagba's arrival at Idah towards its close.” §REF§Clifford, Miles, and Richmond Palmer. “A Nigerian Chiefdom.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 393–435: 397. zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TF7MM698/collection§REF§ “In 1900, the British gradually began to take over effective political and security control of Igalaland. In the same year Attah Amaga (1876-1900) died. In 1901, the first colonial Attah, Ameh Ocheje, was directly appointed by the British and installed by the first British administrator in Igalaland, Charles Partridge, without following the traditional processes of electing an Attah.” §REF§Sani, Badayi M. Chieftaincy and Security in Nigeria Past, Present, and Future. Proceedings of the National Conference on Chieftaincy and Security in Nigeria, 2007: 245. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DHW5WTJD/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 615,
            "polity": {
                "id": 668,
                "name": "ni_nri_k",
                "long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì",
                "start_year": 1043,
                "end_year": 1911
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1043,
            "polity_year_to": 1911,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "There is mention (unreferenced) in some sources to the Kingdom of Nri extending back as far as 900CE based on the archaeological finds at Igbo-Ukwu; however, this early date is disputed (see below). The Ngara source cited below is the only one to mention a specific date in the available scholarship. “The Kingdom of Nri (1043–1911) was the West African medieval state of the NriIgbo, a subgroup of the Igbo people, and is the oldest kingdom in Nigeria.” §REF§Ngara, C. A. (n.d.). An Ethnohistorical Account Of Pre-Colonial Africa, African Kingdoms And African Historical States. 25: 11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/UJG3ED8W/collection§REF§ “In 1938, a farmer was digging a cistern in his compound at Igbo-Ukwu, nine miles from Nri, when he stumbled upon remarkable bronze sculptures. More than twenty years elapsed before the area was professionally excavated, and much longer before the excavations were published. When they were, they revealed the existence of a hitherto unsuspected Igbo Bronze Age in the ninth century CE. The dating did not go unchallenged, but it has never been disproved. Many of the finds — which included a treasure hoard and a dignitary buried in a sitting position in a wood-lined chamber, with slaves and valuables — were immediately explicable in terms of later Nn culture. A bronze depicts a woman with ichi facial scars; only one woman had these scars — the eldest daughter of the Eze Nri. The” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 247. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§ “This ritual pre-eminence is the reward for Nri’s original distribution of the food he had acquired at such great cost. The four-day week and its associated markets were brought by strangers bearing baskets of fish - a condensed symbolic statement of the beginnings of trade between the landlocked Igbo and Niger Delta fishermen (and salt processors). In 1911, the names of nineteen Nri were recorded. The list is not easy to translate into chronological terms, partly because of the long interregna.” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 247. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 616,
            "polity": {
                "id": 669,
                "name": "ni_hausa_k",
                "long_name": "Hausa bakwai",
                "start_year": 900,
                "end_year": 1808
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 900,
            "polity_year_to": 1808,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Dates differ by kingdom. First written record of a Hausa kingdom ay be in the 9th-century work of Ya’qubi, but this is contested: “The identification of the people called by this same author (who wrote in the late ninth century) al-tawiin or al-bawyin with the people whom we now refer to as the Hausa is similarly hazardous. They are also described as a 'group among the Zaghawa' and though this might be a simple error on Ya'qubi's part, other evidence seems to indicate that the term 'Hausa' was not used to designate that well-known group of people in north-western Nigeria until much later.” §REF§Hunwick, J. O. Review of Review of West African Food in the Middle Ages, by Tadeusz Lewicki. African Economic History, no. 1 (1976): 101–104: 102. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ATAFJJSE/collection§REF§ “The history of Kano is undoubtedly the best known, thanks to its chronicles and the wealth of oral tradition.20 The territory which later formed the Kano kingdom was initially ruled by small chiefdoms, each headed by individuals whose authority over the rest of the people was based on ritual jurisdiction. The most important of these chiefdoms were Sheme, Dala and Santolo. At Dala, there were six generations of rulers before the coming of Bagauda. The entry of Bagauda into the Kano area took place, according to Palmer, in the year + 999; that dating has not yet been revised, although Palmer's chronology is plainly arbitrary and very approximate.21” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 271. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “In general, there is much less information on the early history of Katsina;25 but it seems to have closely paralleled that of Kano, albeit with a considerable time-lag. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the territory which later came to be known as Katsina consisted of independent chiefdoms, all of them Hausa-speaking; that at Durbi-ta-Kusheyi was the most important. It was from Durbi that the centralized city-state of Katsina eventually developed. With Sarki Muhammad Korau (1445-95), who was probably the founder of a new dynasty, we are on firmer historical ground. While still at Durbi, Korau identified an important meeting point of several trade routes, the site of an iron-mine and an important shrine, known as Bawada; and as sarki, he established there a new walled city (birni) called Katsina.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 273. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “In 1804, Usman dan Fodio, a Fulani, led a series of jihads that subsumed the Hausa Kingdoms in the Sokoto Caliphate.” §REF§Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009: 148. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SJAIVKDW/collection§REF§ “Birnin Kebbi, the new capital of Kebbi, was the first to fall to the Jihadists in 1805. In 1807 Katsina, Daura and Kano were all taken over by the Jihadists, while in 1808 Alkalawa, the capital of Gobir was sacked and Sarkin Gobir Yunfa slain. With this, the centuries old Hausa dynasties were destroyed and in their places new ones came into being. The various Hausa states metamorphosed into emirates paying allegiance to Sokoto, the new capital of the Sokoto Caliphate.” §REF§Maishanu, H. M., & Maishanu, I. M. (1999). The Jihād and the Formation of the Sokoto Caliphate. Islamic Studies, 38(1), 119–131: 128. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FS9AKXPF/collection§REF§ “According to Abdullahi Smith, the Hausa people 'had lived in Zazzau for more than a millennium before a central government emerged in the area, based initially at Turunku'. 30 From there, the chiefs expanded the territory, annexing the smaller neighbouring chiefdoms and then establishing their new headquarters at the site of the present city of Zaria, probably at the end of the fifteenth century. […] Not long before the fifteenth century, on the plain of Zazzau in the extreme south of Hausaland, several urban centres arose, which evolved a city-state type of administration. In the course of political development, two towns, Turunku and Kufena, came to exercise authority over the others. These two towns were initially independent of each other and remained so until the end of the fifteenth century, when a Turunku ruler, Bakwa, seized power also at Kufena. […] With the merger of Turunku and Kufena, the Zazzau kingdom had really come into being.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 274–275. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “Other groups of Hausa speakers, who later became the Gobirawa, also migrated southwards and established the Gobir kingdom, in different places and at different times. Thus, in the period up to about 1405, this kingdom was located in what is now the Republic of Niger (with its centre at Marandet?); later it moved again to the south and established its capital at Birnin Lalle for some time. The Kano Chronicle mentions the arrival of the Abzinawa in Gobir in the mid-fifteenth century […] The paucity of the written and oral sources does not enable us to reconstruct a more coherent history of Gobir or of the process by which a centralized state first developed there. The same is true of the chronology, since none of the currently available versions of the list of kings is of any value. However, Marandet was already, by about the ninth century, an important commercial and industrial centre based on the trans-Saharan trade with Gao, so it is possible that Gobir had become a centralized state by that time.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 275–276. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “In most works on the early history of the Hausa states, Rano is presented as one of the kingdoms established early in the present millennium, which subsequently lost its sovereignty to Kano. Recently, however, Murray Last has drawn attention to the fact that, if the Kano Chronicle is examined carefully, no evidence can be found for the existence of a kingdom of Rano before the fifteenth century.35 There was, in fact, a Hausa chiefdom called Zamnagaba (or Zamnakogi) which was independent of Kano. According to the Kano Chronicle, it was Sarkiri Kano Yaji (1349-85) who drove its chief from his capital and then went on to Rano and Babu, where he lived for two years.36 Last suggests that before this conquest Zamnagaba was part of the political system of Santolo, which was still independent of Kano at that time and was conquered by Yaji only towards the end of his reign.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 276. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§ “It was only at the beginning of the sixteenth century that the Zamfara kingdom can be said to have clearly emerged as a state. Before that time, the main chiefdoms in its territory were Dutsi, Togai, Kiyawa (or Kiawa) and Jata […] The centralization process started with the rulers of Dutsi, who had brought the other chiefdoms under their control. The establishment of Birnin Zamfara as the permanent capital of the kingdom may have occurred early in the sixteenth century, for in the middle of that century Zamfara began to campaign in a southerly direction; these campaigns took them to Yawuri in the Niger basin, although they did not occupy it permanently.” §REF§Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 276–277. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 617,
            "polity": {
                "id": 670,
                "name": "ni_bornu_emp",
                "long_name": "Kanem-Borno",
                "start_year": 1380,
                "end_year": 1893
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1380,
            "polity_year_to": 1893,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start date could be as early as eighth century if we include Kanem/treat it as Kanem-Bornu. “The empire of Kanem-Bornu finds its roots between Lake Chad and the Bahr el-Ghazal in the region of Kanem (modern-day Chad). It was based on the state of Kanem created around the 8th century and was ruled by the Duguwa, an aristocracy who chose a king among themselves.” §REF§Hiribarren, V. (2016). Kanem-Bornu Empire. In N. Dalziel & J. M. MacKenzie (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Empire (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KNHK5ANQ/collection§REF§ “European conquest at the end of the 19th century then divided Bornu between the German colony of Cameroon and the British colony of Nigeria.”§REF§Hiribarren, V. (2016). Kanem-Bornu Empire. In N. Dalziel & J. M. MacKenzie (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Empire (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KNHK5ANQ/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 618,
            "polity": {
                "id": 671,
                "name": "ni_dahomey_k",
                "long_name": "Foys",
                "start_year": 1715,
                "end_year": 1894
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1715,
            "polity_year_to": 1894,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Contemporary accounts suggest rather that the ruler of Dahomey was originally merely a subordinate governor under the king of Allada, who 'made himself sovereign' only in 1715 when he rebelled against Allada authority.\"§REF§(Law 1988: 447) Law, R. 1988. History and Legitimacy: Aspects of the Use of the past in Precolonial Dahomey. History in Africa 15: 431-456. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/dahomey/titleCreatorYear/items/TXMRDFMN/item-list§REF§ \r\n\r\n“The kingdom of Abomey was captured by the French forces in 1894, after a campaign lasting nearly 20 years. King Gezu, who had ruled between 1818 and 1858, signed a commercial treaty with France in 1851, but his successor son Glele (reigning 1858-89) had provoked a series of hostilities between France and Dahomey. A first French military expedition lead by Dodds in 1890-91 against King Behanzin (reigning 1889-94) was followed by a second in 1892, which lead to the eventual surrender of Behanzin and the capture of Abomey and other strategic sites in Dahomey.”§REF§Kelly, J. A. 2015. ”Dahomey! Dahomey!”: African Art in Paris in the Late 19th Century. Journal of Art Historiography 12. ISSN: 2042-4752. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TH4QZJQ5/library§REF§\r\n\r\n“Most of the chroniclers depend on the memoirs of Archibald Dalzel, published in 1793, for systematic information on the early history of Dahomey. Since it is generally agreed that Dalzel was a scrupulous observer, we have a chain of data stretching back to the early 1600s. Where gaps appear, it is doubtful that they can ever be precisely filled, for beginning with the French conquest in 1892, Dahomey has become increasingly part of the contemporary world.” §REF§Diamond, S. (1996). DAHOMEY: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PROTO-STATE: An Essay in Historical Reconstruction. Dialectical Anthropology, 21(2), 121–216: 127–128. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MW2G58RP/collection§REF§ \r\n\r\n“In 1892, three years after the accession of Behanzin, the last Abomey king, the French conquest brought about the collapse and disintegration of the monarchy (Dunglas, 1957, passim).” §REF§Lombard, J. (1976). The Kingdom of Dahomey. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 70–92). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 73. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/T6WTVSHZ/collection§REF§ “What are the descriptions available for a study of the life of the Dahomean kingdom prior to its conquest by the French in 1892?” §REF§ Herskovits, M. J. (1938). Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom (Vol. 1). J. J. Augustin, New York. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/tags/Dahomey/items/F6XQPZFA/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 619,
            "polity": {
                "id": 673,
                "name": "ni_wukari_fed",
                "long_name": "Wukari Federation",
                "start_year": 1820,
                "end_year": 1899
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": true,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1848,
            "polity_year_to": 1900,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Could date the start of Wukari to 1820 (based on an apparent dynastic shift mentioned by one source), or 1848 (based on dates taken from a king list found in another source).\r\n\r\n\"Kororofa. ca. 1600-1901. [...] Kings: [...] 1815-1848 Zikeenya; 1848-1866 Agbu Manu I\"§REF§(Stewart 1989, 155) Stewart, J. 1989. African states and rulers : an encyclopedia of native, colonial and independent states and rulers past and present. McFarland. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/stewart/titleCreatorYear/items/AMCFGS6W/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\n“By 1820, a Jukun dynasty based at Wukari, south of the Benue, had taken control of what was left of the Kwararafa state. With this transformation, the martial state of Kwararafa had finally come to an end. The Jukun inherited the political power of Kwararafa, but not its martial tradition. The far-flung confederacy had become the homogenous Jukun kingdom of Wukari. Kwararafa under the Jukun ceased to be a warrior state; extant accounts portray the new state as a pacifist and religious one, made up of a collection of unwarlike people solely and strictly devoted to the maintenance of their innumerable religious cults and the veneration of their sacred kings, a people whose prestige and continuing legitimacy depended on their successful performance of their main ritual function, which was to guarantee good harvest and good health for the people.” §REF§Shillington, K., ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). Fitzroy Dearborn: 248. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/collection§REF§ “In the 19th century the Jukun were the rulers of the most prominent successor state - the Kingdom of Wukari - which claimed continuity with the town Kororofa (remark the difference between the town Kororofa and the kingdom or empire Kwararafa).” §REF§Dinslage, S., & Leger, R. (1996). Language and Migration the Impact of the Jukun on Chadic Speaking Groups in the Benue-Gongola Basin. Berichte Des Sonderforschungsbereichs – Universität Frankfurt Am Main., 268(8), 67–75: 68. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8TZKHY4E/collection§REF§ “To this end, the Charter of the company was revoked; this was followed by the British declaration of the Proclamation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, via the Northern Nigeria Order in Council 1899. This provided for the office of the High Commissioner, and empowered him to legislate by proclamation. The order took effect from January 1, 1900. […] In the case of the Jukun and indeed the whole of former Wukari Division, with exception of Suntai mentioned above, there was no open opposition to the British occupation. The area was slowly brought under the control of the British administration.” §REF§Zhema, S. (2017). A History of the Social and Political Organization of the Jukun of Wukari Division, c.1596–1960 [Benue State University]: 140–141. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U667CC36/collection§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 620,
            "polity": {
                "id": 674,
                "name": "se_cayor_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor",
                "start_year": 1549,
                "end_year": 1864
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1549,
            "polity_year_to": 1864,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“1549: Kayor became the last state to secede from the declining Kingdom of Djolof.” §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection §REF§ “1864: Senegal became a colony of France. Lat Dior led an unsuccessful uprising against the French in the Kingdom of Kayor and was exiled.” §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 621,
            "polity": {
                "id": 675,
                "name": "se_saloum_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum",
                "start_year": 1490,
                "end_year": 1863
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1490,
            "polity_year_to": 1863,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Salum was most probably founded by M’Begane N’Dur, king of Sine, in the late fifteenth century, and it expanded greatly in the sixteenth.” §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 183) Ly-Tall, M. 1984. ‘The Decline of the Mali Empire’. In Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6NWXJD94/collection §REF§. The Jihad of Maba Jakhu Ba ended the traditional rule of the Kingdom of Saloun in 1863 CE. “Maba began his jihad in the Kingdom of Saalum in 1861. By the summer of 1863, he had swept away the traditional rulers and established his authority over the area between the Saalum and Gambia rivers.” §REF§ (Babou 2007, 41) Babou, Cheikh Anta Mbacke. 2007. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal 1853-1913. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J8IUBWDD/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 622,
            "polity": {
                "id": 676,
                "name": "se_baol_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Baol",
                "start_year": 1550,
                "end_year": 1890
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1550,
            "polity_year_to": 1890,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“All three capitals: Kahone, Diakhao, and Lambaye, were established in the mid-sixteenth century when the fertile coastal provinces of the Empire of Jolof- an inland empire established in the thirteenth century-gained independence.” §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§ “The year 1886 was of particular importance to this interpretation. The last two claimants to the throne of the precolonial state of Kajoor were killed by colonial forces and the kingdom was transformed into the French protectorate of Cayor in that year. Kajoor’s neighbour to the south, the Kingdom of Bawol, fell under French control four years later.” §REF§ (Glover 2009, 74) Glover, John. 2019. ‘Murid Modernity: Historical Perceptions of Islamic Reform, Sufism, and Colonization.’ In New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity. Edited by Mamadou Diouf and Mara Leichtman. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ET3G9CJD/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 623,
            "polity": {
                "id": 677,
                "name": "se_sine_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Sine",
                "start_year": 1350,
                "end_year": 1887
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1350,
            "polity_year_to": 1887,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The kingdom of Siin did not depart from this pattern. While it is difficult to characterize comfortably its organization throughout its existence, which allegedly spanned from 1350s to its absorption as a colonial protectorate in 1887, historical accounts and colonial writings provide fairly consistent depictions of the kingdom during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” §REF§ (Richard 2015, 206) Richard, Francois G. 2015. ‘The African State in Theory: Thoughts on Political Landscapes and the Limits of Rule in Atlantic Senegal (and Elsewhere).’ In Theory in Africa, Africa in Theory: Locating Meaning in Archaeology. Edited by Jeffery Fleisher et. al. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NUNCWJJP/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 624,
            "polity": {
                "id": 678,
                "name": "se_waalo_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo",
                "start_year": 1287,
                "end_year": 1855
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1287,
            "polity_year_to": 1855,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Since the middle of the 16th century, the Waalo Kingdom, founded in 1287 and located in the estuary of the Senegal River, regains its independence from the Djolof Empire.” §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection §REF§ The French General, Louis Faidherbe, led the conquest against the Waalo beginning in 1855 CE. “When Faidherbe conquered the Waalo between 1855-9, with the intention of restarting the agricultural settlement, and at last procuring for French industry the cotton it needed, the vanquished aristocracy embraced Islam.” §REF§ (Amin 1972, 517) Amin, Samir. 1972. ‘Underdevelopment and Dependence in Black Africa – Origins and Contemporary Forms.’ The Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol 10:4. Pp 503-524. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MR883K86/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 625,
            "polity": {
                "id": 679,
                "name": "se_jolof_emp",
                "long_name": "Jolof Empire",
                "start_year": 1360,
                "end_year": 1549
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1360,
            "polity_year_to": 1549,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "While the Wolof kingdoms of Jolof, Waalo and Cayor had been established as early as the thirteenth century, it was not until 1360 CE when the Jolof Empire formed out of the decline of the Mali Empire. “According to tradition, the founder of the Wolof empire was Ndiadiane N’Diaye, a king (burba) for whose reign dates in the early thirteenth century are conventionally assigned […] Nevertheless the Wolof also experienced at a second remove, the powerful new influences being generated in the westernmost Sudan by Berber penetration, by the growth of Islam and of Mande trade, and by the emergence of the Tukolor and Fulani. The Wolof developed a class hierarchy, with a nobility which was at least nominally Islamic, and, together with Mande and Tukolor elements, began to exert a dominating influence on trade and government of their Serer neighbours. As the Imperial power of Mali declined from about 1360 onwards, it was possible for the dynasty established by Ndiadiane N’Diaye to gain control of the old kingdom of Takrur in the region just south of the middle Senegal now known as Futa Toro, and also to extend its imperial control over the congeries of Serer communities further to the south.” §REF§ (Fage 2008, 484-486) Fage, J.D. 2008. ‘Upper and Lower Guinea’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1050 – c. 1600. Edited by Roland Oliver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Fage/titleCreatorYear/items/9V3CTHZ9/item-list §REF§ “In 1549, the empire split into five coastal kingdoms-Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine and Saloum- from north to south. Wolf tradition dates the end of the empire to the Battle of Danki (1549), when the ruler of Kayor led a rebellion that dismantled the empire and created the successor Wolof Kingdoms.” §REF§ (Aderinto 2017, 281) Aderinto, Saheed. 2017. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4E8Q8Z29/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 626,
            "polity": {
                "id": 680,
                "name": "se_futa_toro_imamate",
                "long_name": "Imamate of Futa Toro",
                "start_year": 1776,
                "end_year": 1860
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1776,
            "polity_year_to": 1860,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The first Muslim success was on the banks of the Senegal river. In 1776, the torodbe, the Muslim clerics of Futa Toro, deposed the denianke rulers and formed a theocratic state.” §REF§ (Klein 1972, 429) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection §REF§ During the Jihad of al-Hajj Umar, the French took control over the Futa Toro region which officially ended the Imamate of Futa Toro. “His jihad began with the conquest of Futa Toro. By 1862 his empire included Timbuktu, Masina, Hamdallahi, and Segu. In Futa Toro, however, he came into conflict with the French, who were attempting to establish their commercial supremacy along the Senegal River. In 1857 they defeated Umar in battle at Medina, and in 1860 Umar made a treaty with the French that recognized their sphere of influence in Futa Toro and assigned him the Bambara states of Kaarta and Segu.” §REF§ (Lapidus, 2014) Lapidus, Ira M. 2014. A History of Islamic Societies. Third Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Lapidus/titleCreatorYear/items/5HAADQHE/item-list §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 627,
            "polity": {
                "id": 681,
                "name": "se_great_fulo_emp",
                "long_name": "Denyanke Kingdom",
                "start_year": 1490,
                "end_year": 1776
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1490,
            "polity_year_to": 1776,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In addition, another African nation called the Empire of Great Fulo which was located just north west of Mali was also rising to prominence and by 1490 has established its first king who battled with both the empires of Mali and Songhai.” §REF§ (Martin, 2016) Martin, J.P. 2016. African Empires: Volume 1. Bloomington, Indiana: Trafford Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WCMXR3XI/collection §REF§ “The first Muslim success was on the banks of the Senegal river. In 1776, the torodbe, the Muslim clerics of Futa Toro, deposed the denianke rulers and formed a theocratic state.” §REF§ (Klein 1972, 429) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 628,
            "polity": {
                "id": 682,
                "name": "se_jolof_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Jolof",
                "start_year": 1549,
                "end_year": 1865
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1549,
            "polity_year_to": 1865,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The Jolof empire was a successor state to the Ghana and Takrur and dominated the Senegambian region for several centuries. Its territiories included the Wolof provinces of Jolof, Waalo, Kajoor, and Bawol, and the Sereer provinces of Siin and Saalum, all of which later became independent kingdoms. Wolof tradition date the end of the empire to the battle of Danki in 1549, when the ruler of Kajoor led a rebellion, that broke up the empire and created six successor kingdoms. The enrichment of the coastal provinces through Atlantic commerce hurt Jolof, which was located inland to the south of the Senegal River.” §REF§ (Searing, 2004) Searing, James. 2004. ‘Wolof and Jolof Empires.’ In Encyclopedia of African History. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WM3HCI97/collection §REF§  “One of the most prominent of these warrior reformers was Ma Ba, a Tukulor cleric and disciple of Al Haj Umar Tail’s who in 1861 launched a holy war and religious revolution against the pagan Mandinka chiefdoms and states along the Gambia River. Ma Ba’s religious wars pitted the party of the marabouts against the traditional rulers, and ceaao. By the mid-1860s, Ma Ba’s forces also controlled much of Saloum and Djolof and he converted several prominent Wolof leaders to Islam, including Lat Dior of Cayor and Alboury N’Diaye of Djolof, who both played major roles in the Islamization of their home states and led the resistance against the French.” §REF§ (Gellar, 2020) Gellar, Sheldon. 2020. Senegal: An African Nation Between Islam and the West. Second Edition. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZCQVA3UX/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 629,
            "polity": {
                "id": 683,
                "name": "ug_buganda_k_2",
                "long_name": "Buganda II",
                "start_year": 1717,
                "end_year": 1894
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1717,
            "polity_year_to": 1894,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start date from the following quote, matched to date from kinglist below: \"The situation, however, changed during the 18th century. This was a period of intense military and administrative activity during which headquarters for new and old chieftainships were established. The period also witnessed the settlement of newly conquered territories and the integration of their societies. Beginning with the reign of Mawanda, we see a streamlining of the administration and because of this Mawanda may be rightly called the father of the kiganda system of local government. The county head- quarters he founded in Bulemezi, Kyaddondo, Kyaggwe and Singo are still the seats of governments and the titles of chiefs which were first used in his reign became permanent and are still used today.\"§REF§(Kiwanuka 1969: 175) Seshat URL:  https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/22DD3KG7/collection.§REF§ End date: \"Into this turmoil, in the last days of 1890, came Captain Frederick Lugard, 'an officer of Her Majesty Queen Victoria' but employed at the time by the Imperial British East Africa Company, the instrument of those officials, businessmen, churchmen and military men who sought to push the British state into the heart of Africa. Buganda had just been assigned to the British 'sphere' as part of a general settlement of matters at issue between Britain and Germany, and the Company was eager to begin the exploitation of the ivory-rich and fertile Lake region in the far interior. Lugard's small force decided the internal conflict [between religious factions in Buganda] in favour of the Christians and, within the Christian party, in favour of the Protestant, or 'English', faction. [...] The Company was broken financially by the cost of Lugard's operations, and in 1894 a reluctant imperial government felt bound to take direct charge of the country, which was then known by the Swahili form of its name, Uganda.\" §REF§(Wrigley 2002: 4) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DNKVW9WZ/collection.§REF§\r\n\r\nStart date and end date from kinglist: “Kabakas (Kings): 1395-1408: Kintu; 1408-1420 Cwa I Nabaka; 1420-1447 Kimera; 1447-1474 Tembo; 1474-1501 Kiggala; 1501-1528 Kiyimbo; 1528-1555 Kayima; 1555-1582 Nakibinge; 1582-1609 Mulundo (joint); 1582-1609 Jemba (joint); 1582-1609 Suna I (joint); 1609-1636 Sekamanya (joint); 1609-1636 Kimbungwe (joint); 1636-1663 Katerrega; 1663-1690 Juuko (joint); 1663-1690 Mutebi (joint); 1663-1690 Kayemba (joint); 1690-1717 Tebandeke (joint); 1690-1717 Ndawula (joint); 1717-1744 Kagulu (joint); 1717-1744 Mawanda (joint); 1717-1744 Kikulwe (joint); 1744-1771 Kagulu (joint); 1744-1771 Namagula (joint); 1744-1771 Kyabaggu (joint); 1771-1798 Junju (joint); 1771-1798 Semakookiru (joint); 1798-1825 Kamanya; 1825-1852 Suna II; 1852-10 Oct. 1884 Mutesa I Walugembe Mukaobya; 10 Oct. 1884-1888 Danieri Mwanga; 1888-Oct. 1888 Mutebi II kIwena; Oct. 1888-Oct. 1889 Kalema; Oct. 1889-July 1897 no kings ruled” §REF§(Stewart 1989, 46) Stewart, J. 1989. African states and rulers : an encyclopedia of native, colonial and independent states and rulers past and present. McFarland. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/stewart/titleCreatorYear/items/AMCFGS6W/item-list§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 630,
            "polity": {
                "id": 684,
                "name": "ug_toro_k",
                "long_name": "Toro",
                "start_year": 1830,
                "end_year": 1896
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1830,
            "polity_year_to": 1896,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Then, around 1830, Toro, in the southwest, seized its independence under Prince Kaboyo's leadership: this new kingdom controlled the key saltworks in Katwe and Kasenyi, north of Lake Edward. [...] The protectorate did not formally spread to Nkore, Toro, and Bunyoro until 1896.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 148, 225) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 631,
            "polity": {
                "id": 685,
                "name": "ug_buganda_k_1",
                "long_name": "Buganda I",
                "start_year": 1408,
                "end_year": 1716
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1408,
            "polity_year_to": 1716,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start date from the following kinglist: “Kabakas (Kings): 1395-1408: Kintu; 1408-1420 Cwa I Nabaka; 1420-1447 Kimera; 1447-1474 Tembo; 1474-1501 Kiggala; 150101528 Kiyimbo; 1528-1555 Kayima; 1555-1582 Nakibinge; 1582-1609 Mulundo (joint); 1582-1609 Jemba (joint); 1582-1609 Suna I (joint); 1609-1636 Sekamanya (joint); 1609-1636 Kimbungwe (joint); 1636-1663 Katerrega; 1663-1690 Juuko (joint); 1663-1690 Mutebi (joint); 1663-1690 Kayemba (joint); 1690-1717 Tebandeke (joint); 1690-1717 Ndawula (joint); 1717-1744 Kagulu (joint); 1717-1744 Mawanda (joint); 1717-1744 Kikulwe (joint); 1744-1771 Kagulu (joint); 1744-1771 Namagula (joint); 1744-1771 Kyabaggu (joint); 1771-1798 Junju (joint); 1771-1798 Semakookiru (joint); 1798-1825 Kamanya; 1825-1852 Suna II; 1852-10 Oct. 1884 Mutesa I Walugembe Mukaobya; 10 Oct. 1884-1888 Danieri Mwanga; 1888-Oct. 1888 Mutebi II kIwena; Oct. 1888-Oct. 1889 Kalema; Oct. 1889-July 1897 no kings ruled” §REF§(Stewart 1989, 46) Stewart, J. 1989. African states and rulers : an encyclopedia of native, colonial and independent states and rulers past and present. McFarland. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/stewart/titleCreatorYear/items/AMCFGS6W/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\nEnd date from the following quote, matched with dates from kinglist: \"The situation, however, changed during the 18th century. This was a period of intense military and administrative activity during which headquarters for new and old chieftainships were established. The period also witnessed the settlement of newly conquered territories and the integration of their societies. Beginning with the reign of Mawanda, we see a streamlining of the administration and because of this Mawanda may be rightly called the father of the kiganda system of local government. The county head- quarters he founded in Bulemezi, Kyaddondo, Kyaggwe and Singo are still the seats of governments and the titles of chiefs which were first used in his reign became permanent and are still used today.\"§REF§(Kiwanuka 1969: 175) Seshat URL:  https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/22DD3KG7/collection.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 632,
            "polity": {
                "id": 686,
                "name": "tz_karagwe_k",
                "long_name": "Karagwe",
                "start_year": 1500,
                "end_year": 1916
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1500,
            "polity_year_to": 1916,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start date: \"While a number of historians (e.g. Ford and Hall 1947; Corry 1949) place the origin of the Karagwe Kingdom in the 16th century AD, a date that matches with the coming of Bahinda, the legendary founder of the kingdom, Katoke, probably correctly, pushes the date a century earlier (Katoke 1975). Basing this on oral accounts and astronomical evidence, he argues that Karagwe had started as a unitary state under a Bantu ruler long before the arrival and conquest of the Bahinda. According to Katoke, the Bahinda invasion took place some time before a series of eclipses of the moon which occurred between 1492 and 1520. The eclipse is reported in both Bunyoro and Nkore traditions in Uganda, the cradle of the Bahinda and where it is said to have taken place during the reign of Nyabugaro or Ntare I, ruler of Nkore. Nyabugaro is claimed to be one of the sons of Ruhinda Kizarabagabe, the founder of the Bahinda dynasty. “If this account is accepted, as it seems it ought to be,” Katoke argues, “Ruhinda and his followers must have come [to Karagwe] much earlier than has hitherto been suggested” (Katoke 1975:xi).\"§REF§(Mapunda 2009: 93) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9GV5C5NF/collection. §REF§ End date: \"Karagwe fell from being one of the most powerful of the nineteenth century states in the Great Lakes, a position it had largely attained through its domination of early Indian Ocean–Great Lakes trade routes, to total collapse and obscurity by 1916.\"§REF§(Shillington 2005: 592) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/collection.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 633,
            "polity": {
                "id": 687,
                "name": "Early Niynginya",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya",
                "start_year": 1650,
                "end_year": 1897
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1650,
            "polity_year_to": 1897,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start date roughly estimated based on the following: \"The Nyiginya kingdom was founded by Ndori, some time in the 1600s. [...] The appearance of Ndori on the scene in central Rwanda seems to have occurred at a time when other kingdoms, such as those of Nkore, Karagwe, and Ndorwa, were also emerging to the north and the northeast. Although the chronology of these polities still remains uncertain, one estimates today that they emerged around 1700.\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 44-45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ End date based on the following: \"But by the end of March 1897, only a few months after his accession, von Ramsay, a German officer, appeared at court and proposed an alliance between the king and the colonial authorities that Kanjogera immediately accepted. Thus began the colonial era. During the following twenty years, however, the German authorities did not interfere with the internal affairs of the realm and thus the customary intrigues and violence continued as before.\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 179) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 634,
            "polity": {
                "id": 688,
                "name": "ug_nkore_k_1",
                "long_name": "Nkore",
                "start_year": 1450,
                "end_year": 1749
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1450,
            "polity_year_to": 1749,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB The first quote posits the earliest possible start date for this polity, but the second quote suggests that the polity changed significanty in the 18th century, enough to warrant splitting its history into two phases. \"Individual settlements were governed by clan chiefs, but around the middle of the 1400s, one of these, Ruhinda, rose to dominance and established himself as mugabe , or paramount ruler over all the Ankole clans. [...] Ankole kings managed to maintain the independence of their people until 1901, when Great Britain claimed the region as a colonial possession and the kingdom came under British control.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015: 45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM.§REF§ \"Between the establishment of the Hinda regime under Ruhinda and his son, Nkuba, and the first half of the eighteenth century, 'nothing of importance seems to have taken place', according to S. R. Karugire (1971: 150), Ankole's leading historian. [...] [C]onsidering what is recorded it seems fairly certain that following Nkuba's consolidation of personal power over the Hima clans until the eventful reign of Ntare IV (1699-1727/26), the absence of historical information stems from the fact that few people in Ankole then or since would recognize the society of the first ten generations as either an historical or political unit much less as a state. Nkuba and his successors emerge dimly from the spare record as what Ruhinda himself was — a wandering herdsman and warrior. The Mugabe (king) of later years was at this stage merely the leading member of the central clan of a cluster of pastoral clans — the giver of gifts of cattle as his title literally implies rather than the monarch or ruler (Mukama) of a sovereign state.\"§REF§(Steinhart 1978: 136) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/D3FV7SKV/collection.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 635,
            "polity": {
                "id": 689,
                "name": "rw_ndorwa_k",
                "long_name": "Ndorwa",
                "start_year": 1700,
                "end_year": 1800
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1700,
            "polity_year_to": 1800,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start date: \"The appearance of Ndori on the scene in central Rwanda seems to have occurred at a time when other kingdoms, such as those of Nkore, Karagwe, and Ndorwa, were also emerging to the north and the northeast. Although the chronology of these polities still remains uncertain, one estimates today that they emerged around 1700.\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 44-45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ The following quote, referring to the Rwandan kingdom of Niyinginya, suggests that Ndorwa had collapsed by the end of the 18th century: \"Its most dangerous enemies had been contained, Ndorwa had collapsed, Gisaka was pushed back to within its natural stronghold, Bugesera was no longer of any importance, and Burundi had been forced back even though it remained the kingdom’s equal in force. By the end of the eighteenth century, the policies and activities of the Nyiginya kingdom affected a vast region that included all of the territory within the present Republic of Rwanda as well as Kigezi and the lands beyond the volcanoes to the northwest.\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 125) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 636,
            "polity": {
                "id": 690,
                "name": "bu_burundi_k",
                "long_name": "Burundi",
                "start_year": 1680,
                "end_year": 1903
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1680,
            "polity_year_to": 1903,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Even if they are rather rare for the period before the 19th century, oral traditions indicate a new geopolitical construct established during the 16th and 17th centuries, culminating in the formation of the patrilineal Ganwa Dynasty, inaugurated by the founding king, Ntare Rushatsi, at the end of the 17th century. [...] Following German military occupation, Mwezi recognized the Deutsch Ost Afrika (German East Africa) protectorate in 1903 in exchange for the new administrative power’s help in re-establishing the court’s authority over the kingdom.\"§REF§(Van Schuylenbergh 2016) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EER653TS/collection.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 637,
            "polity": {
                "id": 692,
                "name": "rw_gisaka_k",
                "long_name": "Gisaka",
                "start_year": 1700,
                "end_year": 1867
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1700,
            "polity_year_to": 1867,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start date: \"Today no dates can be proposed at all for the kingdoms to the south and southeast of central Rwanda, to wit, Mubari, Gisaka, and Bugesera, for lack of archaeological research or even reliable dynastic lists. Their chronology before the middle of the eighteenth century derives from references in Rwandan historical narratives, references that are probably mere anachronisms.\" §REF§(Vansina 2004: 45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ \"1860–67: Expeditions in Gisaka; the country is subdued.\" §REF§(Vansina 2004: 213) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§"
        }
    ]
}