Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
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{ "count": 519, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1747, "polity_year_to": 1826, "comment": null, "description": " The Dynasty was founded by a former soldier of the Afsharid kindgom, and eventual emir of Khorasan who conquered a large swath of territory. The Durrani dynasty was extinguished when Afghanistan fell into a period of sustained civil war in the period between 1818 CE-1826 CE. The British attempted to install a puppet from the family line but this was not successful. The eventual victor was the the Barkzai dynasty, which came to power in 1837. §REF§Barfield, Thomas. Afghanistan: a cultural and political history. Princeton University Press, 2010. pp. 97-109§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1025, "polity_year_to": 1215, "comment": null, "description": "Start: Early 11th CE<br>\"The chiefs of Ḡūr only achieve firm historical mention in the early 5th/11th century with the Ghaznavid raids into their land, when Ḡūr was still a pagan enclave\"§REF§(Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a>§REF§<br>End: 1215 CE<br>Shihab-ud-din Mahammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghu was assassinated in 1206 CE \"by some Shia rebels and the Hindu Khothars.\"§REF§(Nayak ????) Nayak, Ganeswar. ????. Political and Administrative History of Medieval India (1526-1707). SKCG College Paralakhemundi.§REF§<br>\"In Ḡazna, power was seized by the Turkish commander Taj-al-Din Yildiz (Ilduz), legitimized by Giat-al-Din’s grant to him of its governorship (602-11/1206-15). The last Ghurids were puppets of the Karazmsahs, until in 612/1215 ʿAlaʾ-al-Din Mohammad deposed the last sultan in Firuzkuh; the Bamian line was likewise suppressed; and Yildiz was driven out of Gazna.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -256, "polity_year_to": -125, "comment": null, "description": " Beginning as a successor kingdom of the Seleucid Empire and ending in its conquest by nomadic peoples.<br>\"Diodotus renounced the Seleucid emperor Antiochus II in 256 BC and declared himself king after hearing that his ally Andragoras, the Seleucid satrap of the province of Partahia (Parthia) had just done the same.\"§REF§(www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh02-06enl.html)§REF§<br>In the mid-2nd century BCE: \"the Sakas from the Tarim Basin moved to Sogdia and then conquered the Greater Bactria and put an end to Greek rule in this region.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 88) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 408, "polity_year_to": 561, "comment": null, "description": "The beginning data, 408 CE, marks the first appearance of the polity as a separate entity in the records of the local empires when they begin raiding the Sassanian Empire.<br>\"557-61 Final victory of Khosrow I, the Sassanid king, over Hephthalite forces.\"§REF§(West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.§REF§<br>Between 557 CE to 561 CE the Persian King Chosroes allied with another steppe people who had appeared from inner Asia. Although some component peoples of the Hepthalites may have survived into the period of the Islamic conquest, even this contingent had faded outside of some mountain strongholds by around 670 CE.§REF§Runion, Meredith L. The history of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. p. 48§REF§<br>\"565 Almost complete disappearance of Hephthalites in the face of the emergence of the western Turks (Gokturks).\"§REF§(West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.§REF§<br>570 CE is when the core territories were split between the Turkic nomads in the north, and the resurgent Sassanian empire.<br>The timeline of Hepathalites arrival into India is murky but indicates a period of dominance until the local population rebelled after religious persecution and a reduction in military support when the Hepthalites faced conflicts with incoming Turkic peoples. §REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)<i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia p. 146</i>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 388, "polity_year_to": 477, "comment": null, "description": "Of 2,000 coins minted in Samarkand 1st-5th CE only 7 have the name of Kidara which suggests \"Kidarite rule was short-lived.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 125) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ The numismatics of these coins suggests that the Kidara ones cannot be earlier than mid-4th CE.§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 125) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>Sassanian-type Kidarite coins suggest an early relationship with the Sassanids - perhaps official recognition for Sassanian suzerainty. This could be as early as c350 CE and as late as 388 CE.§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 125) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>300 CE<br>\"It has been suggested that they conquered K'ang-chu and Sogdiana in c. 300 but the literary sources have not yet been corroborated by the archaeological evidence.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 124-125) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>350 CE<br>c350 CE Ammianus Marcellinus (XVI, 9.4) reports that the \"Chionites (i.e. the Kidarites) fought in Syria as allies of the Sasanian king, Shapur II (309-379), at the siege of Amida (the modern Diyarbekir).\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 124) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ They were led into battle by a new king called Grumbrates who had an alliance with Shapur II (Ammianus Marcellinus XVII, 5.1).§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 124) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ <i>What had happened to the old king? Was this when the alliance was first agreed?</i><br>390 CE<br>\"Kidara's rise to power, the founding of his state and the annexation of the territories to the south of the Hindu Kush ... should be dated to an earlier period ... some time between 390 and 430, but probably before 410.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 127) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>for reign of king Kidara narrative sources suggest c420s CE but numismatists agree his rule began c390 CE.§REF§(Grenet 2005) Grenet, Frantz. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites§REF§<br>End<br>\"It was probably not Skandagupta's victories but a new wave of nomadic invaders from the north ... Hephthalites ... that put an end of the Kidarite state in Gandhara and Panjab.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 128) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>lost Tokharistan to Hepththalites in 467 CE, \"residual North Indian kingdom, perhaps in Swat, until 477.\"§REF§(Grenet 2005) Grenet, Frantz. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites§REF§<br>possible kinglist, unknown source<br>Kidara I, Kungas, Varhran I, Grumbat, Kidara II, Brahmi Buddhatala, Unknown, Varhran II, Goboziko, Salanavira, Vinayaditya, Kandik<br>Chinese pilgrim Sung Yun visited Gandhara in 520 and discovered Hephthalites were rulers<br>" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 35, "polity_year_to": 319, "comment": null, "description": "Sapadbizes (50-10 BCE) was the first Kushan clan chief. He was a ruler of western Bactria \"sometimes linked to the Yuezhi. He is known only from his his coins\" which are of \"good silver\" and \"overstruck\" those of Phraates IV of Parthia. Chinese chronicles suggest Sapadbizes was a Parthian vassal. It is assumed that his kingdom was conquered by Kujula Kadphises during the war with Parthia and became part of a Kushan Empire c30 CE.§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>Heralos or Heraus (10 BCE - 20 CE) claimed to be a Kushan ruler. He called himself a 'tyrant' on his coinage and had a deformed skull. \"Although different views of chronology persist, there is no doubt that Heraus was an early ruler of the Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi confederacy in northern Bactria, more than a century after the nomads overthrew the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, shortly before the Kushan kings invaded India.\"§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>Kujula Kadphises (20-65 CE) \"was a Kushan prince who united the Yuezhi confederation during the 1st century CE, and became the first Kushan emperor. He was son of the Kushan ruler Keralos. He was the first ruler of the Kushan empire in Afghanistan. Later on he extended his rule to Gandhara and the Punjab (Pakistan) The rise of Kujula Kadphises is described in the Chinese historical chronicle, the Hou Hanshu\".§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>From 35 CE an internal struggle took place between the five Yuezhi 'tribes' on the borders of the Chinese empire . Kadaphasa, head of the Kushan lineage 'tribe', emerges victorious. The Kushans solidified their control over Bactria, expand west into modern Afghanistan, and east into northwest Pakistan beginning in 45 CE. §REF§M. T. Stark, 'Archaeology of Asia' (2008), pp. 335-337§REF§<br>Vima Kadphises (75-105 CE) expanded the Kushan empire in India and acquired the port of Barygaza \"where ships could sail to Egypt, bypassing Parthia\" They traded with the Romans using this route c100 CE.§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§ He introduced gold coinage to the existing silver and cooper coins.§REF§Adesh Katariya. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>Vima Kadphises \"changed the standard of the coins which had so far been of the same weight as the Indo-Greek ones been following Roman precedent.\"§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>Kanishka I (105-140 CE) expanded the empire in Turkmenistan, Tajikstan, Kyrgstan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India. He moved the capital \"from Bactra to Purushapura (Christian: 213).\"§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>End Date: {242-319 CE}. The first Sasanian sovereign Ardashir I raided the Kushana empire after conquering Armenia, which resulted in Kushan submission and the end of the independent Kushan empire. The Kushan king at the time succesfully intervened to support a pretender to the throne in 303 CE. The Sasanian King Shapur II regained the lost territories and once more subjugated the Kushans. The last Kushan king was Vasudeva II probably ruled as a vassal of the Sasanids for some time. The establishment of the Imperial Gupta dynasty by Candragupta in 319 CE is the absolute latest end date for the Kushans as a political entity.§REF§J. Harmatta, 'History of Civilisations of Central Asia pp. 256-264§REF§<br>The end of the Kushans was a period of competing outsiders conquered them and placing them as vassals, with the Sassanians, Guptas and Hepthalites competing over the over-lordship." }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -129, "polity_year_to": 29, "comment": null, "description": " \"The Yueh-chih first arrived in Bactria around 125 BCE.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 78) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§<br>After they had been expelled from the Tarim Basin by the Hsiung-nu and before they entered the region of Sogdiana the Yueh-chih polity was based \"north of the Oxus river\"<br>In the early 2nd century BCE Chinese emissary to the Yueh-chih, Zhang Qian, said \"The Great Yueh-chih live north of the Oxus river. They are bordered in the south by Daxia (Bactria) and on the west by Anxi (Parthia). They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their herds.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 78) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§<br>The end of Yuezhi rule is marked by the seizure of power by the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises. We have no fixed date for this but Loeschner thinks it may have been as early as 20 BCE.§REF§(Loeschner 2008, 11) Hans Loescher. 2008. 'Notes on the Yuezhi-Kushan Relationship and Kushan Chronology'. <i>Oriental Numismatic Society</i>, document available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Yuezhi-Kushan_Hans-Loeschner_2008-04-15-corr.11835732.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Yuezhi-Kushan_Hans-Loeschner_2008-04-15-corr.11835732.pdf</a>.§REF§ In contrast, Osmund Bopearachchi gives a date of 40 CE for the start of Kujula Kadphises' reign.§REF§(Bopearachchi 2007 in Loeschner 2008, 16) Hans Loescher. 2008. 'Notes on the Yuezhi-Kushan Relationship and Kushan Chronology'. <i>Oriental Numismatic Society</i>, document available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Yuezhi-Kushan_Hans-Loeschner_2008-04-15-corr.11835732.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Yuezhi-Kushan_Hans-Loeschner_2008-04-15-corr.11835732.pdf</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 25, "polity_year_to": 220, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Eastern Han dynasty (25-220), also known as the Later Han, formerly began on August 5, AD 25 with the accession of Liu Xiu (5 BC-AD 57) as emperor. ... The Eastern Han lasted until November 24, 220, when the last Han emperor abdicated to Cao Pi (187-226), the founder of the Wei dynasty.\"§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 116) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"Historians conventionally treat the Eastern Han as a restoration, for it was not technically a new dynasty but the return of imperial authority to a member of the Liu clan, which had lost its claim to the throne during the Xin dynasty (9-23) of Wang Mang (45 BC - 23 AD).\"§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 116) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 265, "polity_year_to": 317, "comment": null, "description": "Official dates 265-317 CE. §REF§(Knechtges 2010, 182) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>NB: includes Sixteen Kingdoms period (304-439 CE)" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1650, "polity_year_to": -1250, "comment": null, "description": "\"On the basis of new radiocarbon data, early Shang culture dates from around 1600 to 1300 BC (Expert Team 2000: 63-64). Because of the continuous cultural development from the first stage represented by the early Shang city of Zhengzhou to the later stage represented by the Xiaoshuang- qiao 小双桥 site about 20 km from Zhengzhou, the consensus is that they belong to the same culture. But we still have a short chronological gap between the early Shang remains at Xiaoshuangqiao and the later early Shang remains at Anyang in northern Henan represented by the Huayuanzhuang 花园庄 site, more commonly referred to as Huanbei 洹北 (Guangming Daily 2000). Given the similarities in artifacts and the chronological information so far, I tentatively conclude that Huanbei should be considered an early Shang site (see Chapter 17).\" §REF§(Yuan 2013, 326)§REF§<br>Periodization:<br>\"During Erligang phase I the ceramics show the influences of multiple traditions2 with many different styles of the diagnostic li-tripods (ZSKY 2003:171). Few bronze vessels either in terms oftype or quantity can be dated to this period (currently only some jue and few of those). The vessels, moreover, tend to have thin walls, suggesting, perhaps, that there was not much metal in circulation. Nevertheless, some of the “palace-temple” structures and city walls were constructed in this phase,3 while the bronze foundry at Nanguanwai began production as well.<br>During phase II the ceramic assemblage still shows the multiple influences of the previous period, but bronze artifacts increase in type and quantity, as well as in thickness. Both bronze jue and jia are known from this period. Phase II is considered to be a period of growth and development for the site.Phase III (the first phase of the upper Erligang period) is Zhengzhou’s apogee. Bronzes from this period increase in both numbers and type, and the foundry at Zijingshan North went into production. The foundry site at Nanguangwai continued to produce as well, meaning that in phase III, Zhengzhou had at least two major bronze workshops in simultaneous operation.<br>During Erligang phase IV (Xiaoshuang- qiao-Huanbei phase I), most of the large structures in the palace-temple area were built over with nonelite structures, and the bronze foundries went out of service by the end. Nevertheless, two bronze hoards, as well as several bronze-vessel-yielding tombs, have all been found at Zhengzhou dating to phase IV. If Zhengzhou was indeed in decline, the tombs suggest it had not yet been completely abandoned by its elites, at least as a burial ground. The hoards, on the other hand, might suggest a scenario of rapid abandonment similar to the case of the late Western Zhou bronze hoards.\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 70-72)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1850, "polity_year_to": -1600, "comment": null, "description": " 1900–1500 BCE§REF§(Reinhart, Katrina. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.)§REF§<br>2070-1600 BCE<br>\"In 1996, the Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project was commissioned by the Chinese government to produce a reliable systematic and standardized chronology of the early Chinese predynastic periods. Relying on both historical sources and archaeological data, the team dated the Xia Dynasty to 2070-1600 BC and the Shang to 1600-1046 BC.\" §REF§(Shelach and Jaffe 2014, 329)§REF§<br>1850-1600 BCE<br>\"These dates are based on both the radiocarbon dates published in Xia Shang Zhou Duandai Gongcheng Zhuanjiazu [hereafter XSZDGZ] (2000) and ZSKY (2003). Previous work had suggested that Erlitou dated from 1900-1500 BCE for a total of 400 years with each phase being about 100 years long (Qiu, Cai, Xian, and Bo 1983; ZSKY 1999). Recent radiocarbon work using “wiggle-matching” techniques have dated the site between 1750 and 1520 BCE, reducing Erlitou site occupation to a mere 200 years, the last 50 or so years claimed to be under Shang occupation (Qiu, Cai and Zhang 2006). If this is really the case then the “Erlitou expansion” during Erlitou II and III was both rapid and short-lived (see discussion below).\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 62-63)§REF§<br>1850-1550 BCE<br>\"The Erlitou site is located in the Luoyang city area in the eastern Luoyang basin. The most abundant cultural remains at the site belong to the Erlitou culture, dating to about 3800-3500 BP (c.1850-1550 BC). This date is contemporary with the historically documented Xia and Shang dynasties (Du and Xu 2005).\" §REF§(Xu 2013, 301)§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1895, "polity_year_to": 1941, "comment": null, "description": " The transition from the Qing dynastic to the Chinese republican period was characterized by significant political and economic transformations: 'From Song on, in periods of relative peace, government control was exercised through the tusi system of indirect rule by appointed native headmen who collected taxes, organized corvée, and kept the peace. Miao filled this role in Hunan and eastern Guizhou, but farther west the rulers were often drawn from a hereditary Yi nobility, a system that lasted into the twentieth century. In Guizhou, some tusi claimed Han ancestry, but were probably drawn from the ranks of assimilated Bouyei, Dong, and Miao. Government documents refer to the \"Sheng Miao\" (raw Miao), meaning those living in areas beyond government control and not paying taxes or labor service to the state. In the sixteenth century, in the more pacified areas, the implementation of the policy of gaitu guiliu began the replacement of native rulers with regular civilian and military officials, a few of whom were drawn from assimilated minority families. Land became a commodity, creating both landlords and some freeholding peasants in the areas affected. In the Yunnan-Guizhou border area, the tusi system continued and Miao purchase of land and participation in local markets was restricted by law until the Republican period (1911-1949).' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ Hmong popular uprisings against the deleterious effects of economic and ethnic stratification continued well into the republican period: 'During the Qing, uprisings and military encounters escalated. There were major disturbances in western Hunan (1795-1806) and a continuous series of rebellions in Guizhou (1854-1872). Chinese policies toward the Miao shifted among assimilation, containment in \"stockaded villages,\" dispersal, removal, and extermination. The frequent threat of \"Miao rebellion\" caused considerable anxiety to the state; in actuality, many of these uprisings included Bouyei, Dong, Hui, and other ethnic groups, including Han settlers and demobilized soldiers. At issue were heavy taxation, rising landlordism, rivalries over local resources, and official corruption. One of the last Miao uprisings occurred in 1936 in western Hunan in opposition to Guomindang (Republican) continuation of the tuntian system, which forced the peasants to open up new lands and grow crops for the state.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ [The A-Hmao group doesn't appear to have been directly involved in the more eastern Hmong rebellions, but it appears to have been increasingly subsumed by the Late Qing/Early Chinese in the aftermath of these rebellions.]" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1701, "polity_year_to": 1895, "comment": null, "description": " Beginning with the onset of the Late Qing Dynastic Period and continuing until the early Chinese republican period." }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3000, "polity_year_to": -1900, "comment": null, "description": " \"The earlier part of this trajectory is associated with the so-called Henan and Shanxi Longshan (龙山) cultures, also known by other more localized names and dating to c. 3000-1900 BC.\" §REF§(Shelach and Jaffe 2014, 338)§REF§ \"Even in the area of the middle Yellow River, the trajectory is not the same for all subregions. Taosi seems to have undergone a process of decline; sometime around 2000 BC the large rammed-earth enclosure was destroyed, and stone and bone debris found in the area of the public buildings suggest that it was converted into a workshop for craft production (Liu 2004, pp. 110-111). However, Taosi was not abandoned altogether, and evidence, including radiocarbon dates, suggests that it remained occupied until around 1700 BC (Zhongguo 2003, pp. 566, 838).\" §REF§(Shelach and Jaffe 2014, 343)§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1115, "polity_year_to": 1234, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1368, "polity_year_to": 1644, "comment": null, "description": " Keay §REF§(Keay 2008, 395)§REF§ describes the examinations as a \"three-day-long ordeal\", while Suen and Yu write that both \"the district and the palace exams were administered and completed in a single day\" §REF§(Suen and Yu 2006, 49)§REF§." }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 960, "polity_year_to": 1127, "comment": null, "description": "Northern Song 960-1127 CE.§REF§(Levine 2008, xv) Levine, Ari Daniel. 2008. Divided by a Common Language: Factional Conflict in Late Northern Song China. University of Hawai'i Press. Honolulu.§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 386, "polity_year_to": 534, "comment": null, "description": "NB: includes Northern, Eastern, and Western Wei periods<br>Tuoba homelands around modern city of Datong. Between 304-314 CE Tuoba Yilu assisted Jin governor of Bing province with cavalry forces. \"As a reward for his efforts, Yilu was ceded control of five counties by the Jin court and given the title Prince of Dai (a traditional appellation for the North Shanxi region.\" §REF§(Graff 2002, 57)§REF§ = 314 CE start date?" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 543, "name": "cn_peiligang", "long_name": "Peiligang", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -5001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -7000, "polity_year_to": -5001, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1644, "polity_year_to": 1796, "comment": null, "description": "[Reign Title: English Reign Title/ English Personal Name (Chinese Reign Title/ Chinese Personal Name/ Chinese Temple name)]1644 CE- 1661 CE: Shunzhi/Fulin Emperor (順治/福臨/清世祖)1662 CE - 1722 CE: Kangxi/Xuanye Emperor (康熙/玄燁/清聖祖)1723 CE - 1735 CE: Yongzheng/Yinzhen Emperor (雍正/胤禛/清世宗)1736 CE - 1795 CE: Qinglong/Hongli Emperor (乾隆/弘曆/清高宗)1796 CE- 1820 CE: Jiaqing/Yongyan Emperor (嘉慶/顒琰/清仁宗)<br>\"The Qianlong emperor ruled for the longest period in Chinese history. He \"retired\" as emperor in 1796 so as officially not to exceed the length of his grandfather's 61-year reign, but continued to rule in fact until his death in 1799.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 163)§REF§<br>\"In the 1580s power began to shift among the Jurchen tribes, moving away from confederation under the leadership of the chieftain sanctioned by the Ming. A Ming force intervened to attack that chieftain's rival and restore the status quo, in the process also killing a father and son of the Aisin Gioro lieage. The Ming recognized Nurhaci, the eldest male orphan of the son, as the legitimate inheritor of his father's title. Nurhaci immediately set out to revenge himself upon the man who had advised the Ming commander to intervene, effecting his death three years later and establishing himself as a successful leader. In 1589 the Ming officially designated him comander-in-chief of the Yalu region, acknowledging his actual strength. His rise to power did no go unchallenged. A two-year conflict with other Jurchen tribes concluded with Nurhaci's decisive victory at Jaka on the Hun River in 1593. After allying with the Western Mongols, he destroyed or incorporated most of the remaining Jurchen tribes over a 20-year-period.\" §REF§(Lorge 2005, 141)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1796, "polity_year_to": 1912, "comment": null, "description": "1796 CE- 1820 CE: Jiaqing Emperor (清仁宗/嘉慶)1820 CE - 1850 CE: Daoguang Emperor (清宣宗/道光)1850 CE - 1861 CE: Xianfeng Emperor (清文宗/咸豐)1861 CE - 1875 CE: Tongzhi Emperor (清穆宗/同治)1875 CE - 1908 CE: Guangxu Emperor (清德宗/光緒)1908 CE - 1912 CE: Puyi (溥儀/宣統)" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1250, "polity_year_to": -1045, "comment": null, "description": "Central plain \"Longshan\" culture c2000 BCE. Defeated Xia Kingdom c1766 BCE. §REF§(Roberts 2003)§REF§<br>31 Shang Emperors c1554-1045 BCE. §REF§(Hook 1991, 142)§REF§<br>1200-1040 BCE period best covered. §REF§(Roberts 2003)§REF§<br>Shang periodization§REF§(Bavarian 2005) Bavarian, Behzad. July 2005. Unearthing Technology’s Influence on the Ancient Chinese Dynasties through Metallurgical Investigations, California State University. Northridge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://library.csun.edu/docs/bavarian.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://library.csun.edu/docs/bavarian.pdf</a>§REF§<br>Zhengzhou phase 1600-1400 BCE<br>Erligang culture 1500-1300 BCE<br>Anyang phase 1300-1100 BCE<br>Yinxu culture 1200-1050 BCE" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 581, "polity_year_to": 618, "comment": null, "description": "581 CE: \"Wendi ... (Yang Jian) founded the Sui dynasty, replacing Northern Zhou.\" §REF§(Xiong 2009, cvi)§REF§<br>First (Sui) ruler Yang Jian usurps Northern Zhou throne in 580 CE. \"There followed a civil war in which Yang Jian owed his success to assistance from a man named Gao Jiong, who was to be his chief minister through much of his reign. In 581 Yang Jian claimed that the mandate of heaven had passed to him and he founded the Sui dynasty with himself being given the posthumous title of Wendi.\" §REF§(Roberts 1996, 81)§REF§<br>618 CE: \"Yangdi was killede by Yuwen Huaji ... and others in Jiangdu. Sui fell.\" §REF§(Xiong 2009, cviii)§REF§<br>581-617 CE. §REF§(Wright 1979, )§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 617, "polity_year_to": 763, "comment": null, "description": "\"In 617, when it was obvious that the Sui were finished, Li Yuan marched on Ch'ang-an with an army of 200,000 which included many Turkish auxiliaries. In the subsequent year Li Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of the T'ang (Kao-tsu 618-626).\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 116)§REF§<br>\"The policies established at the outset of the T'ang era were followed, in general, during the long reign of T'ai-tsung's successor, Kao-tsung (650-683).\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 125)§REF§<br>\"In 712 Jui-tsung resigned in favour of his son who was to become the famous Emperor Hsuan-tsung (712-756). His long and eventful reign marks, in fact, a turning-point in the development of China and in the fate of the T'ang dynasty...\" §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 126)§REF§<br>\"In a long and costly campaign the T'ang succeeded in crushing the rebellion by 763. An Lu-shan himself had been killed earlier, in 757, by his own son. The son was, in turn, slain by Shih Ssu-ming who was then commander of all the rebel armies. Shih Ssu-ming, whose military ability was undoubted, suffered an identical fate and was subsequently murdered by his own son. Although ultimately defeated, the An Lu-shan rebellion revealed fully all the inherent weaknesses of the T'ang government. In effect, it broke its power, and while the dynasty lasted almost another century and a half it never recovered fully, in spite of the attempts made by some of the subsequent T'ang rulers, as for example Emperor Hsien-tsung (806-820), to restore a strong, centralized monarchy.\" §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 130)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 763, "polity_year_to": 907, "comment": null, "description": "\"After the foundation itself, the rebellion is without doubt the most significant event in the history of the dynasty. It transformed a centralized, rich, stable and far-flung empire into a struggling, insecure and divided one.\" §REF§(Peterson 1979, 464)§REF§<br>\"In a long and costly campaign the T'ang succeeded in crushing the rebellion by 763. An Lu-shan himself had been killed earlier, in 757, by his own son. The son was, in turn, slain by Shih Ssu-ming who was then commander of all the rebel armies. Shih Ssu-ming, whose military ability was undoubted, suffered an identical fate and was subsequently murdered by his own son. Although ultimately defeated, the An Lu-shan rebellion revealed fully all the inherent weaknesses of the T'ang government. In effect, it broke its power, and while the dynasty lasted almost another century and a half it never recovered fully, in spite of the attempts made by some of the subsequent T'ang rulers, as for example Emperor Hsien-tsung (806-820), to restore a strong, centralized monarchy.\" §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 130)§REF§<br>Toward the end of the dynasty \"effective control passed to regional states formed from the independent provinces. When one of these, the Liang, usurped the throne, the dynasty came to an end.\" §REF§(Roberts 1996, 104)§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -445, "polity_year_to": -225, "comment": null, "description": "445 - reign of Marquis Wen, first independent ruler in the state of Wei; 225 - defeat by Qin" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -202, "polity_year_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "Keay refers to 209-202 BCE period as Civil War. §REF§(Keay 2009, 107)§REF§<br>Battle of Gaixia - Liu Bang vs Xiang Yu 202 BC. Before battle, king, after battle Liu Bang became emperor. §REF§(Kerr 2013, 35)§REF§ Start 202 BCE. §REF§(Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 130)§REF§<br>Liu Bang's statement on becoming Emperor:\"... I am come to rule over you. With you, I further agree on three laws. For murder, death. For injury to person, proportionate punishment. For theft, proportionate punishment. The remainder of the Qin laws to be abrogated. The officials and people will continue to attend to their respective duties as heretofore. My sole object in coming here is to eradicate wrong. I desire to do violence to no one. Fear not.\"§REF§(Kerr 2013, 35)§REF§<br>First Emperor Liu Bang (Emperor Gaozu 206-195 BCE) came to power leading faction that wanted continuation of centralised power but with a more moderate, modernised law system. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 47)§REF§<br>206 BCE - 9 CE §REF§(Roberts 2003)§REF§<br>Followed by \"Wang Mang Interregnum\" 9-23 CE.§REF§(Roberts 2003)§REF§<br>Empress Wang, mother of Cheng di (33 - 7 BCE). Nephew Wang Mang held office of regent under Emperor Pingd (1 - 6 CE). Wang Mang launched a coup and declared himself Emperor Xin.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 55)§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1122, "polity_year_to": -771, "comment": null, "description": "Periodization: 1122-957 BCE; 957-771 BCE.<br>Before 957 BCE state reached peak in extent. In 957 BCE there was a major military disaster.<br>\"Achaeological finds attest to what appears to have been a major ritual reform (if not indeed a \"cultural revolution\"), which may have taken place during the reign of Mu Wang (traditional dates 1001-946; actual dates probably ca. one-half century later. ... assemblages of bronzes in tombs and hoards suggest that the classical Zhou sumptuary system, with its matching sets of ding and gui, originated at that time, indicating a significant reorganization (or at least standardization) of aristocratic society. Art historians have long noted the significant changes in bronze decoration styles in mid-Western Zhou times: the animal derived iconography of earlier times was replaced by more abstract patterns, and the shapes of ritual vessels changed considerably. Given the importance of bronzes in Zhou ritual, such a thorough revamping of the ritual apparatus is likely to bespeak changes in religious ideology.\"§REF§(von Falkenhausen 1994, 319-320) von Falkenhausen, Lothar. 1994. Suspended Music: Chime-Bells in the Culture of Bronze Age China. University of California Press.§REF§<br>This disaster appears to have lead to reform of central government and military and increased bureaucratization. King Xuan's reign c825-782 BCE which is thought of as a restoration would be the peak of the second period.<br>Start of polity<br>1122 CE<br>Conquest of Shang<br>battle of Muye 1045 BCE §REF§(Shaughnessy 1999, 292) Shaughnessy \"Western Zhou History\" in Loewe, Michael. Shaughnessy, Edward L. 2009. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>Son of last Shang Empire ruler became a vassal of Zhou King Wu. On Wu's death there was a period of elite conflict.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 13)§REF§<br>Duke of Zhou took control and \"effectively founded\" the Zhou state. Suppressed rebellion. Created state institutions. §REF§(Cotterrell 1995, 35)§REF§<br>After King Mu, royal control over vassals declined and by 8th century Western Zhou's borders were \"suspect.\" 771 BCE capital Hao was overrun by a non-Chinese/Chinese alliance. Last monarch: King You. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 16)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -5000, "polity_year_to": -3000, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Chang 1999, 49)§REF§<br>\"The Yangshao (7000-4500 B.P.) tradition of the middle Yellow river valley witnessed the emergence of relatively large agricultural communities organized around a public courtyard, many with a defensive moat.\" §REF§(Peregrine and Ember 2001, xix)§REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1271, "polity_year_to": 1368, "comment": null, "description": "<ol><li>1206-1227 CE: Taizu (太祖 Tàizǔ)/ Borjigin Temüjin (孛兒只斤鐵木真 Bóérzhījīn Tiěmùzhēn)</li><li>1227-1229 CE: Ruizong (睿宗 Ruìzōng)/ Borjigin Tolui (孛兒只斤拖雷 BóérzhījīnTuōléi)</li><li>1229-1241 CE: Taizong (太宗 Tàizōng)/ Borjigin Tolui (孛兒只斤拖雷 BóérzhījīnTuōléi)</li><li>1246-1248 CE: Dingzong (定宗 Dìngzōng)/ Borjigin Güyük (孛兒只斤貴由 Bóérzhījīn Guìyuó)</li><li>1251-1259 CE: Xianzong (憲宗 Xiànzōng)/ Borjigin Möngke (孛兒只斤蒙哥 Bóérzhījīn Ménggē)</li><li>1260-1294 CE: Shizu (世祖 Shìzǔ)/ Borjigin Kublai (孛兒只斤忽必烈 Bóérzhījīn Hūbìliè)</li><li>1294-1307 CE: Chengzong (成宗 Chéngzōng)/ Borjigin Temür (孛兒只斤鐵木耳 Bóérzhījīn Tiěmù'ěr)</li><li>1307-1311 CE: Wuzong (武宗 Wǔzōng)/ Borjigin Qayshan (孛兒只斤海山 Bóérzhījīn Hǎishān)</li><li>1311-1320 CE: Renzong (仁宗 Rénzōng)/ Borjigin Ayurparibhadra (孛兒只斤愛育黎拔力八達 Bóérzhījīn Àiyùlíbálìbādá)</li><li>1320-1323 CE: Yingzong (英宗 Yīngzōng)/ Borjigin Suddhipala (孛兒只斤碩德八剌 Bóérzhījīn Shuòdébālá)</li><li>1328-1328 CE: Borjigin Arigaba (孛兒只斤阿速吉八 Bóérzhījīn Āsùjíbā)</li><li>1328-1329 CE: Wuzong (武宗 Wǔzōng)/ Borjigin Toq-Temür (孛兒只斤圖鐵木兒 Bóérzhījīn Tútiěmùér)</li><li>1329-1329 CE: Mingzong (明宗 Míngzōng)/ Borjigin Qoshila (孛兒只斤和世剌 Bóérzhījīn Héshìlà)</li><li>1329-1332 CE: Wuzong (武宗 Wǔzōng)/ Borjigin Toq-Temür (孛兒只斤圖鐵木兒 Bóérzhījīn Tútiěmùér)</li><li>1332-1332 CE: Ningzong (寧宗 Níngzōng)/ Borjigin Irinchibal (孛兒只斤懿璘質班 Bóérzhījīn Yìlínzhìbān)</li><li>1333-1370 CE: Huizong (惠宗 Huìzōng)/ Borjigin Toghan-Temür (孛兒只斤妥懽鐵木兒 Bóérzhījīn Tuǒhuān Tiěmùér)</li></ol>" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 250, "polity_year_to": 1050, "comment": null, "description": " Chronology: Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz §REF§(Giraldo 2015, personal communication)§REF§ based on radiocarbon dated goldwork (50-1000 CE) and complete dated contexts with stone architecture and pottery (450-1100 CE).<br><br>Chronology from the Langebaek 2005 study of the Santa Marta Bays. §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 68)§REF§<br>Oyuela-Caycedo:<br>\"Evidence of early occupation in the Buritaca region is from the coast with a site that seems to date from AD 600 until 900 (Wynn 1975). Frontera, another early occupation in the middle Buritaca, with C14 date as early as AD 660, probably suffered destruction by landslide, and subsequent rebuilding. Frontera is located at 500 masl while Ciudad Perdida lies at 1,100 masl (Cardoso 1986).\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423)§REF§<br>\"It is likely that the SNSM had dispersed populations in the highlands, perhaps even hunter-gatherer groups during the last half of the first millennium BC. However, evidence reveals small villages along the bays and coastline that depended on agriculture and fishing. The settlement pattern shifted after a catastrophic environmental crisis around AD 500-550, just before the occupation of the Mamoron archaeological site (AD 550-800) as well as the site of Frontera in the middle Buritaca River. This time period also seems to be related to a dry phase that coincides with the desertification of the Guajira at the end of the El Horno complex (see Reichel-Dolmatoff and Dussan 1951; Bray 1995). There also are data to support a massive uplift of the SNSM around this time, related to the disappear- ance of an estuary located in the lower Gaira area and Rodadero Bay. We know that the shoreline became more volatile as indicated by the history of the estuarine environments (see Oyuela-Caycedo 1996) of the Cienaga de Santa Marta. Furthermore, evidence from bays like Cinto reveal episodes of massive flooding, sealing coastal settlements such as Nahuange, Cinto, Gairaca, and lower Buritaca with heavy colluvial materials, and ending the early occupations. Later the locations were reoccupied but they continue to suffer simi- lar disasters in modern times.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 418-9)§REF§\"Archaeological investigations by Augusto Oyuela-Caycedo and others indi- cate that people began moving from the coast into the sierra sometime between AD 600 and AD 900.71 The human presence is marked by changes in pollen coresas humans moved into the region, cutting down stands of natural forest and plant- ing maize, agave, and avocados. The lower portions of the Sierra Nevada, 360-500 m (1,181-1,650 ft) above sea level, were first occupied in the sixth and seventh centuries and the higher zones several centuries later.\" §REF§(Moore 2014, 395)§REF§<br>Warwick Bray:<br>\"In 1969 Henning Bischof described a collection of sherds from a pre-Tairona construction fill at Pueblito and linked them with the contents of an exceptional tomb excavated by J. Alden Mason at Nahuange (Bischof 1969a; 1969b). He dated this Nahuange (or Neguanje) phase to approximately A.D. 500-700 on the basis of ceramic cross-ties with Mina de Oro to the west and with the Red-on-Buff wares of the Ranchería to the east. He also recognized that many elements of the Nahuange assemblage were carried over into Classic Tairona. There is now general agreement that Nahuange defines an “early Tairona” or “proto- Tairona” phase.Subsequent excavations by Jack Wynn (n.d.) at Buritaca, Langebaek (1987a) at Papare, and Augusto Oyuela Caycedo (1986; 1987a) at Cinto and Gaira have confirmed the stratigraphic position of the Nahuange phase—later than the incised and modeled Malamboid styles, earlier than Classic Tairona— and placed it between approximately A.D. 300 and 800- 1000. This is in line with the C-14 dates for the earliest “proto-Tairona” goldwork.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 322)§REF§<br>\"The figurine from the Nahuange tomb (Fig. 11) was dated A.D. 310 +/- 70 (OxA-1577), a century or two earlier than Bischof’s proposed date for the grave\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 324)§REF§\"By the eighth or tenth century, transitional Nahuange-Tairona pottery had appeared at Buritaca 200, at 900 to 1,300 meters above sea level (Oyuela Cacedo 1986a), and the mature Tairona tradition was becoming established.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 323)§REF§<br>Carl Langebaek:<br>\"In the 1980s, Augusto Oyuela excavated various sites along the coast (principally at Cinto and Gaira) and proposed the following chronology: a period called Early Cinto, divided in two phases. The first was named phase I and included the 2nd through the 6th Centuries A.D.; the second phase, Phase II, occurred between the 6th and 8th Centuries A.D. The latter phase corresponded to the Buritaca phase that Wynn defined, while the former was the same as Bischof's Neguanje (Oyuela 1985:94, 135). In other publications, the same author talked about three periods for the coast adjacent to Santa Marta's Sierra Nevada: the Early or Integrationist Period, the Middle or Classic Period, and the Late or Conquest Period (Oyuela 1986: 33). The first one lasts from the 2nd through the 9th Centuries A.D. There was evidence for this period - equivalent to Neguanje and the Buritaca phase, the same as Cinto's Phases I and II - in the Gaira lowlands and the inlets of Cinto and Neguanje, as well as the lower parts of the Buritaca river (Figure 1). A date of 430 +/-60 A.D. was reported for the Neguanje ceramics that corresponded to the so-called Integrationist Period in Cinto (Oyuela 1986: 26-7).\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 7-11)§REF§<br>\"As such, it will be tentatively assumed that the Neguanje occupation lasts between the 1st and 7th Centuries A.D. This is later followed by the Buritaca occupation, which this project assigns to the period between the 7th and 10th Centuries A.D. (table 12). The upper limit is defined by the earliest Late Period dates available.\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 59)§REF§" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1050, "polity_year_to": 1524, "comment": null, "description": " Chronology: Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz §REF§(Giraldo 2015, personal communication)§REF§ based on radiocarbon dated goldwork (1000-1600 CE) and complete dated contexts with stone architecture and pottery (1100-1600 CE).<br>\"Much like at Chengue Bay, at Pueblito and Ciudad Perdida, many “diagnostic” materials dating to the Neguanje period were found in contexts dating to the 7th, 8th, 9th and even the 10th centuries A.D. Changes in ceramics are so subtle as to be virtually indistinguishable from one phase to the next, or an early phase diagnostic style continues to appear in later phases. This poses some serious difficulties for breaking down larger periods into small phases based on the stylistic changes of diagnostic sherds and associating these to sociocultural changes.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 285)§REF§<br>\"Pollen studies by the Ecoandes Project show that the whole upper Buritaca area was covered by rainforest prior to the ninth century, but around the end of the tenth century human occupation and deforestation began. C14 dates obtained from an excavation I conducted in 1982 confirm that the early occupation of Ciudad Perdida began around 950 ± 60 BP.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423)§REF§<br>\"By the eighth or tenth century, transitional Nahuange-Tairona pottery had appeared at Buritaca 200, at 900 to 1,300 meters above sea level (Oyuela Cacedo 1986a), and the mature Tairona tradition was becoming established.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 323)§REF§<br>\"The ecological studies demonstrate how greatly and well the SNSM chiefdoms managed their landscapes, protecting and improving them. The center was occupied until the sixteenth century when the Spanish conquest began its processes of war and destruction. The effects were catastrophic for the native population, reducing their numbers to less than 1% of pre-Hispanic highs following 100 years of continuous warfare. The region seems to have been completely abandoned around AD 1630 ± 55, based on C14 dates from collapsed structures and garbage (Oyuela-Caycedo 1986c, 1987a).\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423)§REF§\"The term Tairona is a general, if not very accurate, label for the contact period Indian groups of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the adjacent areas of the Caribbean coast (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1953: 17-27; Bischof 1971; 1982-83). The word also applies to the archaeological culture created by their ancestors from around A.D. 800 to the Spanish Conquest. Spanish fleets first visited this coast in 1501-1502, and in 1524 Rodrigo de Bastidas founded the port of Santa Marta, from which military expeditions explored and eventually subjugated the hinterland. Tairona resistance was not finally broken until 1600.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 301)§REF§\"Archaeological excavations at Ciudad Perdida indicate two major phases. Between AD 1000 and 1300, ceramic styles suggest a close connection with the coast, while after AD 1300 connections shifted to the highland regions to the west. Ciudad Perdida and surrounding communities were occupied until the late 1500s, when genocidal raids by Spaniards annihilated over 90 percent of the native population, driving the survivors into even more remote refuges.\" §REF§(Moore 2014, 395)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1534, "polity_year_to": 1830, "comment": null, "description": " The state of Ecuador was preceded by the Spanish Crown in nominal authority. Ecuador gained independence in the first half of the 19th century: 'The people of Quito, the Ecuadoran capital, claim that it was the scene of the first Ecuadoran patriot uprising against Spanish rule (1809). Invading from Colombia in 1822, the armies of Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre came to the aid of Ecuadoran rebels, and on May 24 Sucre won the decisive Battle of Pichincha on a mountain slope near Quito, thus assuring Ecuadoran independence.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824</a>§REF§ 'Ecuador’s early history as a country was a tormented one. For some eight years it formed, together with what are now the countries of Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela, the confederation of Gran Colombia. But on May 13, 1830, after a period of protracted regional rivalries, Ecuador seceded and became a separate independent republic.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824</a>§REF§ While initially subject to Spanish colonial incursions, the Shuar tribes later resisted successfully: 'The first reported white penetration of Jivaro territory was made in 1549 by a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Benavente. Later expeditions of colonists and soldiers soon followed. These newcomers traded with the Jivaro, made peace pacts with them, and soon began to exploit the gold found in alluvial or glacial deposits in the region. Eventually the Spaniards were able to obtain the co-operation of some of the Indians in working the gold deposits, but others remained hostile, killing many of the colonists and soldiers at every opportunity. Under the subjection of the Spaniards, the Jivaro were required to pay tribute in gold dust; a demand that increased yearly. Finally, in 1599, the Jivaro rebelled en masse, killing many thousands of Spaniards in the process and driving them from the region. After 1599, until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, Jivaro-European relations remained intermittent and mostly hostile. A few missionary and military expeditions entered the region from the Andean highlands, but these frequently ended in disaster and no permanent colonization ever resulted. One of the few \"friendly\" gestures reported for the tribe during this time occurred in 1767, when they gave a Spanish missionizing expedition \"gifts\", which included the skulls of Spaniards who had apparently been killed earlier by the Jivaro (Harner, 1953: 26). Thus it seems that the Jivaros are the only tribe known to have successfully revolted against the Spanish Empire and to have been able to thwart all subsequent attempts by the Spaniards to conquer them. They have withstood armies of gold seeking Inkas as well as Spaniards, and defied the bravado of the early conquistadors.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1831, "polity_year_to": 1931, "comment": null, "description": " Ecuador gained independence in the first half of the 19th century: 'The people of Quito, the Ecuadoran capital, claim that it was the scene of the first Ecuadoran patriot uprising against Spanish rule (1809). Invading from Colombia in 1822, the armies of Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre came to the aid of Ecuadoran rebels, and on May 24 Sucre won the decisive Battle of Pichincha on a mountain slope near Quito, thus assuring Ecuadoran independence.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824</a>§REF§ 'Ecuador’s early history as a country was a tormented one. For some eight years it formed, together with what are now the countries of Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela, the confederation of Gran Colombia. But on May 13, 1830, after a period of protracted regional rivalries, Ecuador seceded and became a separate independent republic.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824</a>§REF§ In the early 20th century, Ecuador increasingly felt the repercussions of global economic and political developments: 'The period between 1925 and 1948 was one of greater turbulence than Ecuador had ever known. Increasing involvement in the world market and in international politics meant that the country could no longer escape entanglements and the consequences of world ideological conflicts. Yet during this crucial period, Ecuador’s internal disunity prevented the modernization of its social structure, land tenure system, education, and communications. Thus, the country was badly equipped to face the demands of the age.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ecuador/Cultural-life#toc25824</a>§REF§ Despite of trade networks involving both indigenous and settler populations, bureaucratic and coercive penetration of Shuar territory was slow during the early Ecuadorian period (see below)." }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1171, "polity_year_to": 1250, "comment": null, "description": "Founded by Saladin, a Kurdish army officer, after his coup in 1171 CE. 1174 CE he occupied Damascus. 1183 CE was recognised as sultan. Following Saladin's death in 1193 CE there was a succession dispute, but his descendants continued to rule until 1250 CE. §REF§(Salibi 2003, 8)§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -4400, "polity_year_to": -3800, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3100, "polity_year_to": -2900, "comment": null, "description": "Started with the unification of Egypt under Menes (1st Dynasty c3100 BCE §REF§(David and David 2002, 86)§REF§<br>Emergence of 1st Dynasty c3000 BCE. §REF§(Bard 2000, 63)§REF§<br>Naqada III<br>\"appearance of a so-called late style, whose forms were already evoking Dynastic pottery.\" §REF§(Midant-Reynes 2000, 43)§REF§<br>3200-3000 carbon dating §REF§(Midant-Reynes 2000, 43 cite: Libby)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2900, "polity_year_to": -2687, "comment": null, "description": " Founded by Hotepsekhemwy and ended in the disorder and civil war that lasted until the last ruler of the 2nd Dynasty, Khasekhemwy (c2714-2687 BCE §REF§(El-Shahawy 2005, 31)§REF§).<br>" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -404, "polity_year_to": -342, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Lloyd 2000, 377)§REF§<br>\"After conquering Egypt in 525, the Persians faced repeated Egyptian revolts over the next century and a quarter, the first almost immediately after the initial conquest. Persian recovery efforts succeeded until the end of the fifth century, when Egypt finally broke away entirely.\"§REF§(Ruzicka 2012) Ruzicka, Stephen. 2012. Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BCE. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Preceded by Persians. Number of revolts against Persian rule. \"Finally, in 404 BC Amyrtaios succeeded and took the name Psamtek, after the first king of the Saite dynasty, as a way of legitimizing his power.\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1260, "polity_year_to": 1348, "comment": null, "description": "\"The traditional division of the Mamluk period into a Bahri/Turkish dynasty (1250-1382) and a Burji/Circassian one (1382-1517) is an inheritance from medieval chroniclers, but it corresponds to no fundamental changes in the organization of the Mamluk state or in Egypt's fortunes. A chronological division responsive to the vagaries of history seems preferable: first, a period of expansion and prosperity, encompassing particularly the reign of Nasir Muhammad, which may be said to end conveniently (if somewhat arbitrarily) in 1348. Next comes a period of crisis starting with the great plague epidemic of 1348, encompassing Tamerlane's expedition, which brought ruin to Syria and decline to Egypt, and ending with the crisis of 1403 and the disastrous reign of Faraj. There follows a period of relative recovery, with a return to normality and periods of brilliance, even as the factors of decline (demographic stagnation in particular) continued to exercise their effects...\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 116-117)§REF§<br>Two possible start dates: 1250 CE (end of Ayyubid Sultanate) or 1260 CE, the beginning of rule of Baybars. Baybars (Sultan 1260-1277 CE) killed the first two Sultans after victories on the battlefield (second, Sultan Qutuz, after defeat of the Mongols). His rule initiated great reforms and according to Oliver (1977) was a statesman and organizer, \"the real founder of the Mamluk state.\" §REF§(Oliver 1977, 39-67)§REF§ Sultan Aybeg (1250-57 CE) called himself the Caliph's viceroy. Baybars installed a new line of Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 39-67)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1412, "polity_year_to": 1517, "comment": null, "description": "\"The traditional division of the Mamluk period into a Bahri/Turkish dynasty (1250-1382) and a Burji/Circassian one (1382-1517) is an inheritance from medieval chroniclers, but it corresponds to no fundamental changes in the organization of the Mamluk state or in Egypt's fortunes. A chronological division responsive to the vagaries of history seems preferable: first, a period of expansion and prosperity, encompassing particularly the reign of Nasir Muhammad, which may be said to end conveniently (if somewhat arbitrarily) in 1348. Next comes a period of crisis starting with the great plague epidemic of 1348, encompassing Tamerlane's expedition, which brought ruin to Syria and decline to Egypt, and ending with the crisis of 1403 and the disastrous reign of Faraj. There follows a period of relative recovery, with a return to normality and periods of brilliance, even as the factors of decline (demographic stagnation in particular) continued to exercise their effects...\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 116-117)§REF§<br>First Burji Sultan was Barquq from 1382 CE.<br>For Cairo this period \"is considered a period of decline, interrupted only by remissions during thereigns of Barsbay and Qaytbay: the great Mamluk institutions experienced irreversible deterioration; the country faced external problems to the north that would bring about its fall, its demographic and economic bases collapsed, disorder and insecurity reigned.\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 165)§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1348, "polity_year_to": 1412, "comment": null, "description": "\"The traditional division of the Mamluk period into a Bahri/Turkish dynasty (1250-1382) and a Burji/Circassian one (1382-1517) is an inheritance from medieval chroniclers, but it corresponds to no fundamental changes in the organization of the Mamluk state or in Egypt's fortunes. A chronological division responsive to the vagaries of history seems preferable: first, a period of expansion and prosperity, encompassing particularly the reign of Nasir Muhammad, which may be said to end conveniently (if somewhat arbitrarily) in 1348. Next comes a period of crisis starting with the great plague epidemic of 1348, encompassing Tamerlane's expedition, which brought ruin to Syria and decline to Egypt, and ending with the crisis of 1403 and the disastrous reign of Faraj. There follows a period of relative recovery, with a return to normality and periods of brilliance, even as the factors of decline (demographic stagnation in particular) continued to exercise their effects...\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 116-117)§REF§<br>The Great Crisis§REF§(Raymond 2000, 138-141)§REF§<br>Plague of 1348 CE<br>Abnormally high Nile flood of 1354 CE<br>Plague of 1374-1375 CE<br>Famine of 1375 CE<br>Plague of 1379-1381 CE<br>civil war 1389 CE<br>Low Nile flood and grain shortage of 1394 CE<br>Tamerlane's invasion of Syria 1400 CE<br>Low Nile flood 1403 CE followed by famine 1403-1404 CE§REF§(Raymond 2000, 146)§REF§<br>\"disastrous\" reign of Faraj Sultan 1399-1412 CE<br>civil war<br>assassination of Faraj Sultan in Damascus in 1412 CE \"marked the end of the crisis.\"<br>Black Death reached Egypt autumn of 1357 CE \"then slowly spread throughout Lower Egypt from the beginning of Muharram 749/April 1348. The epidemic reached its peak during the months of Sha'ban, Ramadan, and Shawwal 749/October 1348 to Janurary 1349, and ceased in the middle of Dhu l-Qa'dah/the beginning of February. The first Egyptian city to be struck by plague was Alexandria, and we might expect this if we assume that the pandemic was transmitted by the important trade from the Crimea.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 154-155)§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2016, "polity_year_to": -1700, "comment": null, "description": "\"Because of the diversity that characterized the Middle Kingdom, Egyptologists have divided this period into the ‘early phase’ (2050-1878 BC) and the ‘late phase’ (1878-1780 BC). A most decisive discontinuity occurred when, in the 1870s BC, Sesostris (Senustret) III embarked on his Nubian campaign.\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 502) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>\"In 1860 BC, ‘a complete reorganization of provincial administration was undertaken by King Sesostris [Senusret] III. As a result, the old system of hereditary nomarchs was destroyed and replaced by a bureaucratic machinery, the operators of which owed their allegiance to the king in his residence’ (James, 1985: 51).\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 502) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3800, "polity_year_to": -3550, "comment": null, "description": " Naqada, IA-IIB.<br>" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3550, "polity_year_to": -3300, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3300, "polity_year_to": -3100, "comment": null, "description": " Naqada IIIA-B.<br>" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1293, "polity_year_to": -1070, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1550, "polity_year_to": -1293, "comment": null, "description": "Ahmose (1550-1525 BCE) was the first king of the 18th Dynasty. §REF§(Bryan 2000, 207)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2650, "polity_year_to": -2350, "comment": null, "description": "Traditionally the Old Kingdom extends from the 3rd dynasty to the 6th dynasty. The earlier times (1st and 2nd dynasty) is considered an Archaic period.<br>The \"classic\" period covers the 3rd - 5th Dynasties.<br>" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2350, "polity_year_to": -2150, "comment": null, "description": "Traditionally the Old Kingdom extends from the 3rd dynasty to the 6th dynasty. The earlier times (1st and 2nd dynasty) is considered an Archaic period.<br>The Late Old Kingdom period is from the 6th Dynastys onwards." } ] }