Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
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{ "count": 519, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=9", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=7", "results": [ { "id": 354, "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "uz_janid_dyn", "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1599, "polity_year_to": 1747, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 355, "polity": { "id": 465, "name": "uz_khwarasm_1", "long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1000, "polity_year_to": -521, "comment": null, "description": " 1000-521 BCE is a temporary periodization. This needs expert input, and very likely the periodization should be split into more than one period.<br><i>This is the Chorasmian periodization used by the Karakalpak-Australian Archaeological Expedition, which began in 1995:§REF§(Helms and Yagodin 1997, 43) Svend Helms and Vadim N. Yagodin. 1997. ‘Excavations at Kazakl'i-Yatkan in the Tash-Ki'rman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia: A Preliminary Report’. ‘’Iran’’ 35: 43-65.§REF§</i><br>BRONZE AGE (= ANDRONOVO)<br>Suyargan: Ia (early stage) 1st half 2nd millennium BC<br>Suyargan: Ib (late stage) 11th-9th centuries BC<br>Tazabag'yab: II 15th-11th centuries BC<br>EARLY IRON AGE (= LATE ANDRONOVO)<br>Amirabad: III 9th-8th centuries BC<br>ARCHAIC<br>Kiuzeli-g'ir: I 7th/6th centuries BC<br>Dingil'dzhe: II 6th/5th centuries BC<br>Kala'i-g'ir: III 5th century BC<br>Khazarasp: IV 5th/4th century BC<br>ANTIQUE<br>Kangiui: I (early stage) 4th-3rd centuries BC<br>Kangiui: II (late stage) 2nd century BC - 1st century AD<br>Kushan: I (early) 1st-2nd centuries AD<br>Kushan: II (late) 3rd-4th centuries AD<br>Hephthalite: 4th-6th centuries AD<br>Turk: 4th century AD+<br>AFRIGHID4th(?)-9th centuries AD§REF§(Helms et al. 2001, 119-20) S. W. Helms, V. N. Yagodin, A. V. G. Betts, G. Khozhaniyazov and F. Kidd. 2001. 'Five Seasons of Excavations in the Tash-k'irman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia, 1996-2000: An Interim Report'. <i>Iran</i> 39: 119-44.§REF§<i></i><br>\"Their location at the crossroads of continental trade assured the prosperity of Khwarazm’s cities - provided they could channel water from the fast-flowing Amu Darya onto their agricultural land. As early as the sixth century BC, the people of Khwarazm had become masters of hydraulic engineering, diverting whole rivers into freshly dug channels to serve major centers tens of miles away, and dividing them again into canals to provide water to more remote towns. Nowhere on earth were irrigation technologies more highly developed than here.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>V. Altman, “Ancient Khorezmian Civilization in the Light of the Latest Archaeological Discoveries (1937-1945),” Journal of the American Oriental Society 67, 2 (April-June 1947): 81.<br>Tolstov, Drevnii Khoresm (Moscow, 1948) Posledam drevnekhorezmiiskoi tsivilizatsii (Moscow, 1948), pt. 2<br>Masson, Strana tysiachi gorodov (Moscow, 1966), 123-44; Barthold, Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion, 149<br>N. N. Negmatov, “States in North-Western Central Asia,” in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 2:441, 446, 455." }, { "id": 356, "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "uz_koktepe_1", "long_name": "Koktepe I", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1400, "polity_year_to": -1000, "comment": null, "description": "Earliest: c1400 BCEOf samples taken, earliest C14 date c1400-1200 BCE, latest C14 date 810-760 BCE§REF§(Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa.§REF§<br>Latest: c1000 BCE?\"After an apparent chronological gap around the first third of the first millennium BC, the first real monumental architecture appeared on the terrace of Koktepe\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 34) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§<br>\"The transition between the period of the painted pottery (Koktepe I) and the period of the monumental courtyards (Koktepe II) needs further research, as the differences betwen the north-eastern and south-western trends of the early Iron Age cultures still need explanation.\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§" }, { "id": 357, "polity": { "id": 466, "name": "uz_koktepe_2", "long_name": "Koktepe II", "start_year": -750, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -750, "polity_year_to": -550, "comment": null, "description": "Earliest c750 BCE?<br>\"After an apparent chronological gap around the first third of the first millennium BC, the first real monumental architecture appeared on the terrace of Koktepe\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 34) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§<br>At present, we do not know how long the gap between Koktepe I and II lasted.§REF§(Rapin 2007, 3) Claude Rapin. 2007. 'Koktepa v period zheleznogo veka do prixoda axemenidov' [The Iron Age at Koktepe up to the Arrival of the Achaemenids], in <i>Samarkand shaxrining umumbasharij madanij tarakkiët tarixida tutgan ûrni: Samarkand shaxrining 2750 jillik jubilejinga baghishlangan xalkaro ilmij simposium materiallari</i> [The Role of Samarkand in the History of World Civilization: Materials of the International Scientific Symposium Devoted to the 2750th Anniversary of the City of Samarkand], pp. 29-38. Tashkent. French version available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BiblioTextesKoktepePDF/Koktepe_SMK2007v7fr.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BiblioTextesKoktepePDF/Koktepe_SMK2007v7fr.pdf</a>.§REF§<br>Possible influence from a centralized Bactrian state or even 'empire' from the mid-8th century BCE: archaeologist V. M. Masson 'concluded that there was in Bactria a major political unit that extended its influences to Margiana and, possibly, to Aria and Sogdiana. The existence of a pre-Achaemenian Bactrian empire has been archaeologically proved through studies of the northern Afghanistan settlements of Altyn-Dilyar-depe, with its lofty citadel ringed with ramparts and bastions, Altyn-depe I with its keep, and Altyn-depe X with its summer and winter palaces. With their tall citadels raised on platforms and their defensive walls, such heavily fortified settlements as Altyn-Dilyar in the Farukhabad oasis or Altyndepe in that of Dashly, contrast sharply with the hand-made decorated pottery. This means that the culture originated at the latest in the mid-eighth century B.C.§REF§(Askarov 1992, 447-48) A. Askarov. 1992. 'The Beginning of the Iron Age in Transoxania', in <i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol 1: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B.C.</i>, edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 441-58. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§<br><span style=\"color:purple\">JR: According to Rapin, we could even start Koktepe II later than 750 BCE, around 650 BCE: 'Au vu de la minceur des couches de sol des cours fortifiées, la période de Koktepe II ne semble pas avoir duré très longtemps: un siècle au maximum, à partir, peut-être, de la seconde partie du VIIe siècle' [In view of the shallow depth of the soil layers of the fortified courtyards, the period of Koktepe II doesn't seem to have lasted for very long: a century at most, beginning, perhaps, from the second half of the 7th century].§REF§(Rapin 2007, 7) Claude Rapin. 2007. 'Koktepa v period zheleznogo veka do prixoda axemenidov' [The Iron Age at Koktepe up to the Arrival of the Achaemenids], in <i>Samarkand shaxrining umumbasharij madanij tarakkiët tarixida tutgan ûrni: Samarkand shaxrining 2750 jillik jubilejinga baghishlangan xalkaro ilmij simposium materiallari</i> [The Role of Samarkand in the History of World Civilization: Materials of the International Scientific Symposium Devoted to the 2750th Anniversary of the City of Samarkand], pp. 29-38. Tashkent. French version available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BiblioTextesKoktepePDF/Koktepe_SMK2007v7fr.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BiblioTextesKoktepePDF/Koktepe_SMK2007v7fr.pdf</a>.§REF§ </span><br>Latest: c550 BCE<br>Scythians prior to Persian conquest<br>\"As was the case for various earlier constructions, both monuments were abandoned during a period of nomad invasions, possibly in the sixth century BC. (We know, for instance, that east of the Caspian Sea Darius I had to fight Scythian nomads like those represented by their king Skunkha illustrated as a defeated prisoner on the relief of Behistun).\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§<br>\"a period of nomadic presence ... put an end to the period of the first monumental building programme\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§<br><span style=\"color:purple\">JR: some of the statements in a later (2013) article by Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov seem to contradict the idea that the society that built the monumental courtyards of Koktepe II was overrun by Scythians before the arrival of the Achaemenids. For one, they tentatively assign these economic-political and religious areas to 'Scythes sédentarisés' (sedentarized Scythians) themselves. They also say that 'La période dite de \"Koktepe III\" apparaît sans transition chronologique aussitôt après la celle de \"Koktepe II\". L'organisation urbaine et architecturale fondamentalement nouvelle qui se manifeste alors pourrait correspondre à l'arrivée en Asie centrale des Achéménides' [The period called 'Koktepe III' appears without chronological transition immediately after that of 'Koktepe II'. The fundamentally new urban and architectural organization that is manifested at this point could correspond to the arrival in central Asia of the Achaemenids],§REF§(Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 128) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. <i>Cahiers d'Asie centrale</i> 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>.§REF§ implying cultural continuity right up to the Achaemenid period. Maybe we have a case for extending the end date of this polity to 520 BCE (the date given on the Sogdiana NGA page for the full incorporation of Sogdiana into the Achaemenid Empire)?</span>" }, { "id": 358, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 819, "polity_year_to": 999, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Samanid brothers, while initially subject to the Tahirids, were largely autonomousrulers in their own territories, minted bronze coins in their own names, and mustered militias and mounted campaigns against surrounding provinces.\"§REF§(Negmatov 1997, 84) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>Ismail Ibn Ahmad Samani (849-907 CE) \"Founder of the Samanid state.\" §REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ -- referring to institutions of central government.§REF§(Negmatov 1997, 85) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>\"The Samanids had been a local ruling family since Sasanian times, but in the wake of the incorporation of Transoxania into the Islamic empire, they converted to Islam. During the caliphate of al-Ma'mun (813-33), the ruling members of the family were named hereditary governors of Samarqand, Farghana, and Herat - without further supervision.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 99) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 359, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 604, "polity_year_to": 711, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Islamic conquest of Central Asia began in earnest in 706 CE, when the Arab general Qutayba ibn Muslim pushed his forces across the Amu Darya to attack the outer reaches of the Sogdian city state of Bukhara.\"§REF§(Hanks 2010, 3) Hanks, R R. 2010. Global Security Watch-Central Asia. ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 360, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1370, "polity_year_to": 1526, "comment": null, "description": "\"Timur was officially installed as ruler at Balkh in 1370.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>Uzbek nomads eventually conquered the feuding provinces within the Chagatai khanate/Timurid Empire.§REF§(Khan 2003, 35) Khan, A. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group.§REF§<br>\"1501-2 marked a political watershed ... In that year, Muhammad Shaybani Khan (1500-10), the founder of the new dynasty of the Shaybanids, definitively conquered Samarkand. Northern Tukharistan, however, still belonged to the Timurids...\" §REF§(Davidovich and Dani 1998, 411) Davidovich, E. A. Dani, A. H. 1998. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 4. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 361, "polity": { "id": 353, "name": "ye_himyar_1", "long_name": "Himyar I", "start_year": 270, "end_year": 340 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 270, "polity_year_to": 340, "comment": null, "description": "First period as Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan 115-240 or 270 BCE (depending on whether Abyssinian occupation is included)<br>Hitti suggests the first Himyarite kingdom which emerged as a tribe in the southwestern highlands of Yemen around 115 BCE lasted until 300 CE.§REF§(Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>After the Roman attacks in 25 BCE the Himyarites \"siezed the Sabaean homelands and made the population subject to a new Saba-Himyar regime.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>During the dual kingdom period \"Saba was obliged, through straitened circumstances, to seek a coalition with Himyar, forming the united monarchy of 'Saba and Dhu Raydan.' In the second century AD, however, the fortunes of the Sabaean people revived somewhat and they began to campaign vigorously against the Himyarites.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 47) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Abyssinian occupation from 240-270 CE<br>Abyssinians, from Ethiopia, who had occupied the Tihama (Red Sea coast) region since the 2nd century CE, \"marched on the Himyarite capital, Zafar, and conquered it around 240 CE, compelling the Himyarites to enter into an alliance with them.\"§REF§(Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara§REF§<br>agreeing an alliance with Himyar withdraw from the Arabian peninsular§REF§(Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara§REF§ the Abyssinians withdrew in about 270 CE.§REF§(Orlin et al. 424) Eric Orlin. Lisbeth S Fried. Jennifer Wright Knust. Muchael L Satlow. Michael E Pregill. eds. 2016. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Routledge. New York.§REF§<br>\"the Himyarites seem to have recognized the Aksumites as their overlords by at least about 296-298, which suggests a defeat, but the situation fluctuated.\"§REF§(Syvanne 2015, 133) Ilkka Syvanne. 2015. Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Pen and Sword. Barnsley.§REF§<br>First Himyarite Period 270-340 CE<br>\"At least from about 270 onwards to about 328 the Aksumites were enemies of Rome. The Himyarites appear to have been clients of the Aksumites at least until about 298 and therefore enemies of Rome but they appear to have thrown off the Aksumite yoke at least temporarily after that, or at least their independent embassy to Persia, in about AD 300 would seem to suggest this, but ... the alliances were unstable\".§REF§(Syvanne 2015, 134) Ilkka Syvanne. 2015. Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Pen and Sword. Barnsley.§REF§<br>Abyssinian occupation from 340-377 CE<br>End 340 CE: \"After an invasion from Abyssinia resulting in a short Abysinian rule (ca. 340-78) the native Himyarite kings resumed their long title and held their position till about A.D. 525.\"§REF§(Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§'<br>" }, { "id": 362, "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "ye_himyar_2", "long_name": "Himyar II", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 378, "polity_year_to": 525, "comment": null, "description": " \"After an invasion from Abyssinia resulting in a short Abysinian rule (ca. 340-78) the native Himyarite kings resumed their long title and held their position till about A.D. 525.\"§REF§(Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§'<br>Hitti suggests the first Himyarite kingdom which emerged as a tribe in the southwestern highlands of Yemen around 115 CE lasted until 300 CE.§REF§(Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ After the Roman attacks in 25 BCE the Himyarites \"siezed the Sabaean homelands and made the population subject to a new Saba-Himyar regime.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>During the dual kingdom period \"Saba was obliged, through straitened circumstances, to seek a coalition with Himyar, forming the united monarchy of 'Saba and Dhu Raydan.' In the second century AD, however, the fortunes of the Sabaean people revived somewhat and they began to campaign vigorously against the Himyarites.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 47) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 363, "polity": { "id": 537, "name": "ye_yemen_lba", "long_name": "Yemen - Late Bronze Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1200, "polity_year_to": -801, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 364, "polity": { "id": 536, "name": "ye_yemen_lnl", "long_name": "Neolithic Yemen", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3500, "polity_year_to": -1201, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 365, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1637, "polity_year_to": 1805, "comment": null, "description": " 'Al-Qasim b. Muhammad claimed the Imamate in 1597 and fought the Turks for slightly more than two decades.' When he died in 1620, his son al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad took the Imamate and renewed the war, but it was not until 1636 that the Turks were all driven out and the Zaydis came to hold all Yemen.' §REF§Dresch, Paul. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 198p§REF§ Parts of Yemen were re-taken by the Ottoman empire in the 19th century: 'By the 16th century and again in the 19th century, North Yemen became part of Ottoman Empire, from which it gained independence in 1918.' §REF§Safa, Mohammad Samaun 2005. \"Socio-Economic Factors Affecting the Income of Small-scale Agroforestry Farms in Hill Country Areas in Yemen: A Comparison of OLS and WLS Determinants\", 119§REF§" }, { "id": 366, "polity": { "id": 539, "name": "ye_qatabanian_commonwealth", "long_name": "Qatabanian Commonwealth", "start_year": -450, "end_year": -111 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -450, "polity_year_to": -111, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 367, "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "ye_rasulid_dyn", "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1229, "polity_year_to": 1453, "comment": null, "description": "\"The circumstances of the transfer of authority in Yemen are mystifying unless seen in the context of events in the north. Upon Saladin's death in 1192, his brothers and sons warred among themselves for the throne and for undisputed possession of fragments of the empire he had erected in Syria, Iraq, and Egypt. ... Such was the situation in 1215 when, in Yemen, Tughtakin's second son, al-Nasir Ayyub, died of poison administered by the Kurdish commander of the Mamelukes. The late king's mother sent for a distant relative, a great-grandson of Saladin's brother Shahanshah Nur al-Din, to assume rule. Al-Kamil, however, had aspirations for his own branch of the clan, and fitted out his adolescent son al-Mas'ud Yusuf with a strong force. With the advice and help of the Rasul brothers, Mas'ud succeeded in capturing his rival and sent him in chains to Egypt. Mas'ud appointed the Rasulid Nur al-Dun 'Umar his atabeg, an office which covered command of the troops as well as counsel to the young prince. Friendship between the two grew close during the fourteen years of Mas'ud's reign in Yemen. Al-Kamil succeeded to the Ayyubid throne upon al-Adil's death in 1218, and some years later summoned Mas'ud to govern Syria on his behalf. Mas'ud's departure was marked by a thorough looting of Yemen [by Mas'ud], and by the contingent transfer of power to his atabeg.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 106-107) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Ends when the Rasulid amir of Aden surrenders to the Tahirids and the last Rasulid Sultan, Salah al-Din b. Ismail III, fled to Mecca.§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§" }, { "id": 368, "polity": { "id": 538, "name": "ye_sabaean_commonwealth", "long_name": "Sabaean Commonwealth", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -451 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -800, "polity_year_to": -451, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 369, "polity": { "id": 540, "name": "ye_saba_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan", "start_year": -110, "end_year": 149 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -110, "polity_year_to": 149, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 370, "polity": { "id": 372, "name": "ye_tahirid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1454, "polity_year_to": 1517, "comment": null, "description": "Rasulid Yemen ends when the Rasulid amir of Aden surrenders to the Tahirids and the last Rasulid Sultan, Salah al-Din b. Ismail III, fled to Mecca.§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§" }, { "id": 371, "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "ye_warlords", "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1038, "polity_year_to": 1174, "comment": null, "description": "\"Following the end of the Ziyadid dynasty in the early 11th century, two former slaves of the kingdom founded the Najahid dynasty. Control of the Tihama swayed back and forth between the Najahid rulers and the Sulayhid power of the highlands. In the mid 12th century, 'Ali bin Mahdi finally brought about the end of the Najahid dynasty.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2007, 159) Daniel McLaughlin. 2007. Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. Chalfont St Peter§REF§<br>An \"era of the 'war lords'\" existed \"until Rasulid times.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 45) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"The Sulayhids [like Charlemagne] revived an ancient empire by their talents, basing their work on lofty political and religious principle. The latter, however, did not coincide with the aspirations of many of their subjects. Nor do the Sulayhids seem to have had a clear concept of Yemen as an economic unit to be strengthened and articulated.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 77) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"Sulayhids: Shi'i dynasty which ruled over Yemen as nominal vassals of the Fatimids from 1047 till 1138. It was founded by 'Ali b. Muhammad, who chased the Abyssinian slave dynasty of the Najahids from Zabid, fought the Zaydi Imam al-Qasim b. 'Ali and took San'a' in 1063, Zabid in 1064 and Aden in 1065. He restored order in Mecca and appointed Abu Hashim Muhammad (r. 1063-1094) as Sharif. He was killed by the Najahid Sa'id b. Najah (d. 1088) in 1067. His son al-Mukarram (r. 1067-1091) again conquered Zabid from the Najahids and rescued his other Asma' bint Shihab (d. 1086). In the same year 1086 he instituted a new coinage called 'Maliki Dinars', but left state affairs to his wife al-Sayyida Arwa (b. 1052, r. 1084-1138), who transferred her residence from San'a' to Dhu Jibla in winter, making the castle of Ta'kar, where the treasures of the Sulayhids were stored, her residence in summer. In 1119 the Fatimid Caliph al-'Amir sent Ibn Najib al-Dawla as an emissary to Yemen. He reduced the smaller principalities to obedience but Queen Arwa was able to resist his endeavours. At her death the Sulayhid dynasty came to an end, and power passed to the Zuray'ids, who were to hold it until the arrival of the Ayyubid Turan-Shah in 1174.\"§REF§(van Donzel 1994, 427) E J van Donzel. 1994. Islamic Desk Reference. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Sulayhids: Queen Arwa died aged 92 in 1137 CE.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 69) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"the rise and fall of the Najahid princes of Zabid (1020s-1150s), a city that was one of the early recipients of Abyssinian slaves through Dahlak, illustrates the closeness of ties between the Yemeni coast and its opposite shores across the Red Sea, as well as the multifaceted impact of slavery networks in this region. ... On losing their city to the rising Sulayhid power of the Yemeni highlands, the defeated Najahid rulers, who were of Abyssinian slave origin, took refuge in Dahlak, where they plotted their return. In preparation for storming the Najahid city, the Sulayhid leader, al-Mukarram, instructed his troops to refrain from killing black Africans in Zabid, and instead to subject them first to a linguistic test; if when asked to pronounce the Arabic phoneme 'z,' they produced a 'z', then they were fair game, their accent having just betrayed them as pure Abyssinians and presumably part of what was percieved as a foreign Abyssinian cadre ruling the city; but if they pronounced the phoneme in the standard peninsular Arabic way, they were to be considered Arabs and spared, because 'Arab men in these coastal regions have children with black slaves and black skin is shared by free and slave alike.'\"§REF§(Margariti 2013, 216) Roxani Margariti. An Ocean of Islamds: Islands, Insularity, and Historiography of the Indian Ocean. Peter N Miller ed. 2013. The Sea: Thalassography and Historiography. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 372, "polity": { "id": 359, "name": "ye_ziyad_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Ziyadid Dynasty", "start_year": 822, "end_year": 1037 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 822, "polity_year_to": 1037, "comment": null, "description": "\"Effective Abbasid rule in Yemen ended when Muhammad bin 'Ubaidallah bin Ziyad, appointed in 822 by Ma'mum to govern the Tihama, threw off all pretense of obedience of Baghdad beyond causing the Friday prayers to be said in the caliph's name, and founded the Banu Ziyad state, laying out and building the city of Zabid as its capital.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 45) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"In A.D. 822, in Yemen, Muhammad ibn Ziyad founds the Banu Ziyad dynasty in the new city of Zabid in the Red Sea coastal desert\".§REF§(Burrows 2010, xxiv) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham.§REF§<br>\"In 1037, Ali al-Sulayhid, acting for the Ismaili Fatimid caliphate in Cairo, founds the Sulayhid dynasty, which based itself in Sanaa and then Jibla, lasts for a century, and concludes with the long rule of fabled Queen Arwa.\"§REF§(Burrows 2010, xxiv) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham.§REF§<br>\"Following the end of the Ziyadid dynasty in the early 11th century, two former slaves of the kingdom founded the Najahid dynasty. Control of the Tihama swayed back and forth between the Najahid rulers and the Sulayhid power of the highlands.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2007, 159) Daniel McLaughlin. 2007. Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. Chalfont St Peter§REF§<br>Ziyadid dynasty ruled southern Tihama 819-1012 CE, then by the Najahids.§REF§(Starkey 2008, 655) Janet Starkey. Tihama. Ian Richard Netton ed. 2008. Encyclopedia of Islam. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 373, "polity": { "id": 570, "name": "es_spanish_emp_2", "long_name": "Spanish Empire II", "start_year": 1716, "end_year": 1814 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1716, "polity_year_to": 1814, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 558, "polity": { "id": 607, "name": "si_early_modern_interior", "long_name": "Early Modern Sierra Leone", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1650, "polity_year_to": 1896, "comment": null, "description": "\"About the middle of the seventeenth century the Mani system of viceroys--dondaghs as they were called--began to break down.\"§REF§(Kup 1975: 40) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/36IUGEZV/collection.§REF§ \"Finally, in 1896, after negotiations with the French who were similarly involved in neighboring Guinea, the British declared a “protectorate” over the vast interior of the colony. The protectorate and the colony now became the British territory of Sierra Leone.\"§REF§(Fyle and Foray 2006: xxxvi) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM.§REF§" }, { "id": 559, "polity": { "id": 608, "name": "gm_kaabu_emp", "long_name": "Kaabu", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1500, "polity_year_to": 1867, "comment": null, "description": "\"Kaabu's origins are obscure and are provisionally dated to the 17th century. [...] The date Fula captured Kansala is unresolved, but it was probably between 1864 and 1867 (Pelissier 1989: 104-105, note 1 15; Silva 1969: 17-18 specifies that the battle was fought May 1 9, 1 864 but does not cite a source).\"§REF§(Brooks 2007: 51, 57) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TT7FC2RX/collection.§REF§ \"Many historians have associated the rise of Kaabunké power with the demise of the Mali empire in the late 15th century and the rise of Atlantic trade, in particular slaving.\"§REF§(Green 2009: 92) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V2GTBN8A/collection.§REF§ \"Vast territories where the Manding language was spread fell within the sphere of control of non-Muslim political organisms, such as the Bamana Kingdom of Segu (18th century–1861), or the Kaabu confederation (15th century–1867) in southern Senegambia.\" §REF§(Vydrin 2014: 201) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/E8Z57DNC/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 560, "polity": { "id": 609, "name": "si_freetown_1", "long_name": "Freetown", "start_year": 1787, "end_year": 1808 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1787, "polity_year_to": 1808, "comment": null, "description": "\"The beginning of modern Sierra Leone has often been identified with the founding of a settlement for manumitted Africans in Freetown on the Sierra Leone Peninsula in 1787. [...] Britain established formal colonial control of Freetown in 1808, a year following the enactment of the Abolition Act (1807) proscribing the Atlantic slave trade for British citizens.\"§REF§(Cole 2021) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 561, "polity": { "id": 610, "name": "gu_futa_jallon", "long_name": "Futa Jallon", "start_year": 1725, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1725, "polity_year_to": 1896, "comment": null, "description": "\"Walter Rodney gives an excellent account of the economic, political and social context of the 1725 revolution which ended in the setting up of the theocratic state of Futa Jallon by the marabout party.\" §REF§(Barry 1999: 289) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/24W2293H/item-list§REF§ \"By the end of the eighteenth century, Futa Jalon had become an Islamic state.\" §REF§(Bangura 2005: 537) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/BEW97CV4/item-list§REF§ \"European interest in Futa Jalon was intensified during the course of the nineteenth century. The process that started from the end of the eighteenth century with the Sierra Leone Company continued throughout the nineteenth century and ended with actual European occupation of the region. Visits to the region were made mainly by French and English emissaries under various pretexts. Fascinated by reports about the country’s real or alleged wealth, these European powers sent explorers, followed by trade missions with thinly disguised political motives, and finally, the conquerors who took advantage of the internal squabbles caused by the fight for succession to overrun the country in 1896.\"§REF§(Barry 2005: 539) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/6TXWGHAX/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 562, "polity": { "id": 611, "name": "si_mane_emp", "long_name": "Mane", "start_year": 1550, "end_year": 1650 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1550, "polity_year_to": 1650, "comment": null, "description": "\"The dating of the military conquest can be ascertained with exactitude. Barreira, writing in 1607, said that the Manes had arrived about sixty years previously, and De Almada says that the invasion began around 1550. On the latter's evidence, Yves Person was able to date the arrival of the Manes between 1540 and 1550. This is confirmed by Dornelas, who stated categorically that the subjugation of the Sapes was effected in the fifteen years between 1545 and 1560.\" §REF§(Rodney 1967: 226) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G8G96NVQ/collection.§REF§ \"Sierra Leone's recorded history reveals a quite well-documented Mande invasion between 1540 and 1550.\"§REF§(Kup 1975: 28) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/36IUGEZV/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 563, "polity": { "id": 612, "name": "ni_nok_1", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1500, "polity_year_to": -901, "comment": null, "description": "\"[T]he Nok Culture can be viewed as a tripartite complex: starting with the onset of farming in the middle of the second millennium BCE, leading to a flourishing period between approximately 900 and 400 BCE with dense occupation, elaborate terracotta art and the advent of iron metallurgy, followed by its sudden decline and ultimate disappearance in the last centuries BCE. The Nok tradition vanishes around the turn of the eras, possibly related to unfavourable environmental changes (Höhn & Neumann 2016). Younger sites, up to historical times, are grouped together artificially as “Post-Nok” sites, in order to separate them from the Nok sites. Besides the complete absence of Nok sculptures, there is also a marked difference in pottery decoration techniques as well as in the chemical composition of the clay used for pottery making (Beck 2015; Franke 2015).\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 244) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.§REF§" }, { "id": 564, "polity": { "id": 613, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 100, "polity_year_to": 500, "comment": null, "description": "\"The community [of Kirikongo] was founded by a single house (Mound 4) c. ad 100 (Yellow I), as part of a regional expansion of farming peoples in small homesteads in western Burkina Faso. A true village emerged with the establishment of a second house (Mound 1) c. ad 450, and by the end of the first millennium ad the community had expanded to six houses. At first, these were economically generalized houses (potting, iron metallurgy, farming and herding) settled distantly apart with direct access to farming land that appear to have exercised some autonomy.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2015: 21-22)§REF§" }, { "id": 565, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 800, "polity_year_to": 1379, "comment": null, "description": "\"For now, the Arabic and oral sources only paint in broad strokes the political dynamics of the rise of Kanem polity as the dominant power in the Chad Basin ca. A.D. 800. The tentative scenario is that the struggle over the control of prime land and northward trade routes among the small polities and groups in Zaghawa, a region between modern Chad Republic and sudanic savanna, intensified in the eighth century in the northern Chad Basin. Out of these peer-polity competitions arose a single powerful state of the Kanembu between the ninth and eleventh centuries (Ehret, 2003, p. 48). [...] The southward relocation of the capital of the troubled and aging Kanembu polity to Birni Gazargamo in 1472 transformed Bornu into the center of imperial activities in the basin. Between ca. 1500 and 1900, Bornu’s imperial interests reshaped sociopolitical dynamics throughout the Chad Basin.\" §REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 144)§REF§" }, { "id": 566, "polity": { "id": 615, "name": "ni_nok_2", "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "start_year": -900, "end_year": 0 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -900, "polity_year_to": 0, "comment": null, "description": "\"[T]he Nok Culture can be viewed as a tripartite complex: starting with the onset of farming in the middle of the second millennium BCE, leading to a flourishing period between approximately 900 and 400 BCE with dense occupation, elaborate terracotta art and the advent of iron metallurgy, followed by its sudden decline and ultimate disappearance in the last centuries BCE. The Nok tradition vanishes around the turn of the eras, possibly related to unfavourable environmental changes (Höhn & Neumann 2016). Younger sites, up to historical times, are grouped together artificially as “Post-Nok” sites, in order to separate them from the Nok sites. Besides the complete absence of Nok sculptures, there is also a marked difference in pottery decoration techniques as well as in the chemical composition of the clay used for pottery making (Beck 2015; Franke 2015).\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 244) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.§REF§" }, { "id": 567, "polity": { "id": 616, "name": "si_pre_sape", "long_name": "Pre-Sape Sierra Leone", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 600, "polity_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Limba preceded every other group, including the Bullom, in settling the area. Cecil Magbaily Fyle places Limba presence in the Wara Wara Mountains of northern Sierra Leone in the 7th century, based on the research findings of the archeologist John Atherton. Atherton discovered stone tools and other artifacts in the Wara Wara hills that are dated to the 7th century. [...] By the 15th century, the “Sape,” a conglomeration of Bullom, Themne, Limba, Baga, and Soso peoples, seems to have emerged in the region, according to early Portuguese sources.\"§REF§(Cole 2021) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 568, "polity": { "id": 617, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1100, "polity_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 569, "polity": { "id": 618, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV", "start_year": 1401, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1401, "polity_year_to": 1500, "comment": null, "description": "\"Red IV (ca. 1400–1500 CE)\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 131)§REF§" }, { "id": 570, "polity": { "id": 619, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I", "start_year": 701, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 701, "polity_year_to": 1100, "comment": null, "description": "\"Red I (ca. AD 500-700)\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 28)§REF§" }, { "id": 571, "polity": { "id": 621, "name": "si_sape", "long_name": "Sape", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1400, "polity_year_to": 1550, "comment": null, "description": "\"By the 15th century, the “Sape,” a conglomeration of Bullom, Themne, Limba, Baga, and Soso peoples, seems to have emerged in the region, according to early Portuguese sources. [...] Towards the end of the 16th century, it is suggested, a group called the Mane invaded Sierra Leone, with significant demographic, political, and cultural consequences for the country.\"§REF§(Cole 2021) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§ \"Sierra Leone's recorded history reveals a quite well-documented Mande invasion between 1540 and 1550.\"§REF§(Kup 1975: 28) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/36IUGEZV/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 572, "polity": { "id": 622, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II", "start_year": 501, "end_year": 700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 501, "polity_year_to": 700, "comment": null, "description": "\"Yellow II (ca. 500-700)\" §REF§(Dueppen 2012: 28)§REF§" }, { "id": 573, "polity": { "id": 623, "name": "zi_toutswe", "long_name": "Toutswe", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 700, "polity_year_to": 1250, "comment": null, "description": "Initially formed around 700 CE, the product of mixing between local Khoisan and newly-arrived external cattle herding peoples. The culture’s decline occurred in the mid-13th C. CE, most likely a product of environmental degradation. “Between AD 700 and and 1250, people associated with Toutswe ceramics occupied the western side of the Shashe-Limpopo basin.” §REF§ (Mosothwane & Steyn 2004; 45) Morongwa N. Mosothwane & Maryna Steyn, “Palaeodemography of Early Iron Age Toutswe Communities in Botswana,” in The South African Archaeological Bulletin Vol. 59, No. 180 (2004): 45-51. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KJZWB7HR/collection §REF§ “Around the year 700, pastoralists began to move into the area… taking advantage… of local pasturage to support larger cattle herds. Here they came into contact with the Khoisan people already resident in the area…. By 900 a stratified and hierarchical society was emerging on the fringes of the Kalahari Desert, linked regionally to other emergent states like that at Mapungubwe…. Toutswemogala was occupied for approximately 500 years until the fourteenth century…. The power of the state diminished during the thirteenth century, probably as a result of overgrazing and drought and the state went into a decline.” §REF§ (Erlank 2005; 701-702) Natasha Erlank, “Iron Age (Later): Southern Africa: Toutswemogala, Cattle, and Political Power,” in Encyclopedia of African History Vol. 2, ed. Kevin Shillington (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005): 701-702. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 574, "polity": { "id": 624, "name": "zi_great_zimbabwe", "long_name": "Great Zimbabwe", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1270, "polity_year_to": 1550, "comment": null, "description": "Duration identified in Pikirayi (2006). The polity’s population appears to have grown substantially in complexity during the period of Mapungubwe, prior to the real emergence of Great Zimbabwe as a site. It is worth pointing out that the decline of Great Zimbabwe seems to be a subject of some debate, and the reasons and timeline for it seem to be quite unclear. The end-date for the polity may, then, need to be substantially revised in future as new research is forthcoming. “Great Zimbabwe (AD 1270-1550) emerged in the southern plateau regions of Zimbabwe from an Iron Age agricultural community.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2006; 31) Innocent Pikirayi, “The Demise of Great Zimbabwe, AD 1420-1550: An Environmental Re-Appraisal,” in Cities in the World, 1500-2000 (Routledge, 2006): 31-47. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6Z64MQH4/collection §REF§ “Iron Age farmers… developed chiefdom-level societies at Chivowa and Gumanye hills in south-central Zimbabwe…. They transformed from simple kin-warranted domestic corporations, relying mainly on land and cattle, to long-distance traders…. By about 1270, a powerful elite emerged at Great Zimbabwe, laying the foundations of an elaborate urban complex and the center of a state…. Great Zimbabwe became the most dominant political authority south of the Zambezi for up to 250 years….” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2013; 26-27) Innocent Pikirayi, “Great Zimbabwe in Historical Archaeology: Reconceptualizing Decline, Abandonment, and Reoccupation of an Ancient Polity, A.D. 1450-1900,” in Historical Archaeology Vol. 47, No. 1 (2013): 26-37. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/642PWKV7/collection §REF§ “Traditionally, an array of factors was put forward to explain the decline of… Great Zimbabwe… // …One of the most long-enduring reasons… is linked to unsustainable population growth which devasted [sic] the surrounding environment to unproductive levels…. Increases in demography evidently precipitated ecological degradation, prompting the decline of the urban and state system through conflict or migration… // …As an independent variable, climate change-induced environmental deterioration is yet another variable….environmental arguments for the decline of Great Zimbabwe are hampered by the fact that very little empirical work was ever done to develop a diachronic picture of how the environment may have changed (or not) through time… // …Some scholars have suggested that Great Zimbabwe’s collapse was partly a consequence of the loss of control of the lucrative trade with the Indian Ocean coast… to its offspring, the Mutapa and Torwa-Changamire states… // …However, this traditional assumption requires critical evaluation in light of new information that has emerged in the past few years, the most important of which is that Great Zimbabwe coexisted with both the Mutapa and Torwa-Changamire states for a while…. Political processes were more complicated than the simple linear evolutionism firmly etched in traditional frameworks where the collapse of Great Zimbabwe stimulated the instant rise of two powerful states in the south-west and in in the north… // …Somewhat on the speculative side and drawing from comparisons provided by politics in the Mutapa and Torwa-Changamire states, it is possible that succession politics contributed to the decline of Great Zimbabwe…. It is possible that in the case of Great Zimbabwe, succession disputes fanned centrifugal forces that gradually weakened the state, resulting in decline… // …The decline of Great Zimbabwe was a process… that resulted from a combination of several factors…. The poor quality of existing information limits the extent to which we can explore the contribution of individual variables…. Nevertheless, it is best to adopt an integrationist view that includes all possible factors in exploring the mechanics of the processes of collapse.” §REF§ (Chirikure 2021; 243-249) Shadreck Chirikure, Great Zimbabwe: Reclaiming a ‘Confiscated’ Past (Routledge, 2021). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MWWKAGSJ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 575, "polity": { "id": 625, "name": "zi_torwa_rozvi", "long_name": "Torwa-Rozvi", "start_year": 1494, "end_year": 1850 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1494, "polity_year_to": 1850, "comment": null, "description": "All of the information on Torwa is slightly unreliable, but it appears that the state was initially formed by a rebellion against Mutapa, and remained a fairly weak breakaway state until the dynastic replacement by the Rozvi, under whom the polity reached its greatest power, and following which it began to slowly fragment and diminish in power until its dissolution in the 1850s. “By around 1494 a dynasty called Torwa broke away and established itself in Guruuswa in the southwestern periphery of the state…. A political dispute occurred in the early 1640s in the area controlled by the Torwa; one of the Torwa rulers was defeated in a power struggle and forced to flee. The Portuguese intervened in this conflict by sending a small Portuguese army led by Sismundo Dias Bayao. This event is linked to the fall of Khami. The capital area shifted about 150 kilometers east, where the Torwa continued to rule until the early 1680s...//… After 1684 the Karanga, led by Dombo Changamire, replaced the Torwa dynasty. Their followers were called the Rozvi. Dombo Changamire founded a powerful state whose influence reached the areas formerly controlled by the Mutapa State such as Mukaranga, Mbire, and Manyika…//… Archaeological evidence shows the existence of stone buildings in southwestern Zimbabwe dating at least from the fifteenth century. These buildings are characterized by retaining walls built with well-shaped rectangular blocks, on top of which are platforms accommodating circular houses…. The biggest settlement is at Khami, near Bulawayo. Stone buildings of various sizes are located in the area once controlled by the Torwa. The Rozvi continued to build in stone in the same style…. Their capital was at Danangombe and other important centers include Naletale, Zinjanja, and Manyanga. This cultural continuity between Torwa and Rozvi suggests they were the same people…//… The succession disputes that occurred after the death of Dombo Changamire undermined the power of the state. Many Rozvi migrated elsewhere, with some setting up chiefdoms in the areas they subsequently settled…. [a son of Dombo] crossed the Limpopo River and conquered the territory of the Venda… in the Zoutpansberg. This is the Thovhela State that is mentioned by the Dutch traders based at Delagoa Bay (c.1730)…. Torwa-Rozvi rule lasted almost 400 years in southwestern Zimbabwe. The Rozvi declined following the arrival of the mfecane groups from the south of the Limpopo. Direct attacks by the Sotho and Nguni andthe subsequent Ndebele settlement saw the demise of the Rozvi in the 1850s.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2005, 1573) Innocent Pikirayi, “Torwa, Changamire Dombo, and the Rozvi,” in Encyclopaedia of African History Vol. 3, ed. Kevin Shillington (Chicago: Taylor & Francis, 2005): 1572-1573. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/item-details §REF§." }, { "id": 576, "polity": { "id": 626, "name": "zi_mutapa", "long_name": "Mutapa", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1880 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1450, "polity_year_to": 1880, "comment": null, "description": "Basic chronology given in a variety of sources, though the exact years selected for the polity’s end-date vary. “…one polity… occupied the northern parts of the [Zimbabwe] plateau and adjacent lowlands from the fifteenth to the late nineteenth centuries.…the Mutapa state… chronologically overlaps with Great Zimbabwe and Khami from AD 1450 onwards.” §REF§ (Chirikure et al. 2017, 170) Shadreck Chirikure et al., “The Mutapa and the Portuguese: Archaeometallurgy and Regional Interaction in Southern Africa,” in Archives, Objects, Places and Landscapes: Multidisciplinary approaches to Decolonised Zimbabwe pasts, eds. Munyaradzi Manyanga, Shadreck Chirikure (Bamenda: Langaa Research & Publishing, 2017): 169-189. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/X54CISW6/item-details §REF§ “By the late seventeenth century the state had lost control of areas south of the Zambezi Escarpment…. The Mutapa state shifted toward Dande, north of the Zambezi Escarpment, during the early eighteenth century.” §REF§ (Pikirayi 2005, 1057) Innocent Pikirayi, “Mutapa State, 1450-1884,” in Encyclopedia of African History Vol. 2, ed. Kevin Shillington (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005): 1056-1058. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AWA9ZT5B/item-details §REF§ “…the Mutapa state collapsed in the 1820s and 1830s under attack by Nguni groups from the south, under the leadership of Zwangendaba and Nxaba and Maseko. By the 1880s, the Mutapa state was no more.” §REF§ (Mlambo 2014, 23) Alois Mlambo, A History of Zimbabwe (New York, Cambridge University Press: 2014). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/IMR6WQ6M/item-details §REF§" }, { "id": 577, "polity": { "id": 627, "name": "in_pandya_emp_3", "long_name": "Pandya Empire", "start_year": 1216, "end_year": 1323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1216, "polity_year_to": 1323, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Pandyans dominated the north of Sri Lanka as they did the south in the second half of the thirteenth century under Jalavarman Sundara Pandya (1251-72). [...] The expansionist Muslim Khilji Dynasty in north India had defeated a rival kingdom to the Pandyans, the Hoysalas, and the latter helped the Khilji general, Malik Kafur, to raid the Pandyans in 1310 and loot their capital at Madurai (which probably stimulated migration to Sri Lanka). There followed a generation of Muslim rule, civil war, and the restoration of Hindu monarchies. The last Pandyan ruler of Madurai was expelled in 1323, and the city was briefly the capital under a Muslim sultanate.\" §REF§(Peebles 2006: 31) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 578, "polity": { "id": 628, "name": "sl_dambadeniya", "long_name": "Dambadaneiya", "start_year": 1232, "end_year": 1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1232, "polity_year_to": 1293, "comment": null, "description": "\"Though Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa kingdoms survived for a long period of time, Dambadeniya was held as a kingdom only for about forty years from 1232 to 1272 A.D. Even within this short epoch Dambadeniya acquired a prominent place as a centre of royalty.\" \"After Parakramahahu's death his son Yijayabahu, who had already been in control of the administration for many years, succeeded to the throne and ruled from Jambuddoni for a brief two years at the end of which his reign came to a tragic end. 3 His successor Bhuvanekabahu I (1272-84) remained at Jambuddoni for a few years but later moved to Subhagiri where he set up his seat of authority. Among the latter’s successors, Parakramahahu III (1287-93) reigned at Polonnaruva for a brief period, and after that this ancient city is never mentioned again in the Culavamsa and had evidently passed into oblivion.\" THESIS 409" }, { "id": 579, "polity": { "id": 629, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_4", "long_name": "Anurādhapura IV", "start_year": 614, "end_year": 1017 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 614, "polity_year_to": 1017, "comment": null, "description": "“The political structure whose main features we have analysed above survived the accession of Mānavamma and the establishment of dynastic stability in the period of the Lambakaṇṇa monopoly of power in the seventh to the tenth centuries. True, the succession disputes which kept the politics of the early Anurādhapura kingdom in a state of semi-permanent crisis largely disappeared. True also that there was an enlargement and greater sophistication in the administrative machinery, that royal authority was augmented and that particularism was at a discount when powerful rulers controlled Anurādhapura, as they did with greater frequency in this period. But neither singly nor in combination did these changes amount to a fundamental change in the political system of the Anurādhapura kingdom.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 24) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§ “It took nearly six decades of devastating civil war for the Lambakaṇṇas to re-establish their supremacy, but having done so they maintained their pre-eminence once again over a great length of time. Indeed the second Lambakaṇṇa dynasty established by Mānavamma gave the island two centuries of comparatively stable government. In the last phase of the dynasty’s spell of power the severest tests that confronted it came from South India invaders and not local rivals.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 18-19) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 580, "polity": { "id": 630, "name": "sl_polonnaruva", "long_name": "Polonnaruwa", "start_year": 1070, "end_year": 1255 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1070, "polity_year_to": 1255, "comment": null, "description": "Starting date signifies the defeat of Chola Empire and restoration of Sinalese power. End date coincides with abandonment of the capital after the death of King Magha. “Thus by 1070 Vijayabāhu had triumphed and the restoration of Sinhalese power was complete […] Māgha’s rule and its aftermath are a watershed in the history of the island, marking as they did the beginning of a new political order. For one thing Polonnaruva ceases to be the capital city after Māgha’s death in 1255.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 61, 63) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 581, "polity": { "id": 631, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_3", "long_name": "Anurādhapura III", "start_year": 428, "end_year": 614 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 428, "polity_year_to": 614, "comment": null, "description": "“In the fifth century, the Moriyas were able to ascend the throne after more than five centuries of Lambakanna dominance. Two hundred years of open conflict between the two clans followed, until the last Moriya king was overthrown in 614 and the dominance of the Lambakannas re-established. Later in that century, the reign of the Lambakannas stabilised thanks to a new law of succession to the throne which helped to monopolise the power of the Lambakannas.” §REF§ (Wenzlhuemer, R. 2008, 21) Wenzlhuemer, Roland. 2008. From Coffee to Tea Cultivation in Ceylon, 1880–1900An Economic and Social History. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EMUGE5WD/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 582, "polity": { "id": 632, "name": "nl_dutch_emp_1", "long_name": "Dutch Empire", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1795 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1648, "polity_year_to": 1795, "comment": null, "description": "From independence from the Holy Roman Empire to Napoleonic occupation. \"The peace treaty of Westphalia in 1648 established a political border that was to the south of the religious border. To the south Hapsburg reign continued, with the new independent Republic of Seven United Provinces to the north. This situation was to continue throughout the remainder of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, until Napoleon conquered and eventually annexed the country. This ‘French period’, as the Napoleonic occupation is commonly referred to in the Netherlands, left an important imprint on the political institutions of the Netherlands, as we shall discuss momentarily. [...] The ‘French period’ lasted only from 1795 to 1813, but the Napoleonic occupation left the country highly centralized.\"§REF§(Andeweg and Irwin 1993: 8-9) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M8ENXX8G/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 583, "polity": { "id": 633, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_1", "long_name": "Anurādhapura I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 70 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -300, "polity_year_to": 70, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 584, "polity": { "id": 634, "name": "sl_jaffa_k", "long_name": "Jaffna", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1310, "polity_year_to": 1591, "comment": null, "description": "Start date is a rough approximation based on the following: \"The Pandyans dominated the north of Sri Lanka as they did the south in the second half of the thirteenth century under Jalavarman Sundara Pandya (1251-72). Their fortunes declined in the early fourteenth century, however. The expansionist Muslim Khilji Dynasty in north India had defeated a rival kingdom to the Pandyans, the Hoysalas, and the latter helped the Khilji general, Malik Kafur, to raid the Pandyans in 1310 and loot their capital at Madurai (which probably stimulated migration to Sri Lanka). There followed a generation of Muslim rule, civil war, and the restoration of Hindu monarchies. The last Pandyan ruler of Madurai was expelled in 1323, and the city was briefly the capital under a Muslim sultanate.//\"The upheaval enabled the Tamil rulers of northern Sri Lanka to establish their independence. The early history of this kingdom is uncertain. A Pandyan general called Āryachakravarti, a title given to officials or provincial chieftains, led an invasion about the year 1284. He may have remained in northern Sri Lanka following the invasion, and he or a family member declared their independence as the Pandyans declined.\" §REF§(Peebles 2006: 31) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection.§REF§ End date: \"The Portuguese invaded the Jaffna peninsula in 1591 and made Ethirimanna Cinkam king with a promise to promote Christianity. §REF§(Peebles 2006: 36) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 585, "polity": { "id": 635, "name": "sl_anuradhapura_2", "long_name": "Anurādhapura II", "start_year": 70, "end_year": 428 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 70, "polity_year_to": 428, "comment": null, "description": "“The first Lambakanna dynasty (established by Vasabha AD 67-111) retained its hold on the throne at Anurādhapura till the death of Mahānāma in AD 428, when the dynasty itself became extinct.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 18) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 586, "polity": { "id": 636, "name": "et_jimma_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma", "start_year": 1790, "end_year": 1932 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1790, "polity_year_to": 1932, "comment": null, "description": "While the exact date of origin is unclear, Lewis states that it began in the late eighteenth century. The start of the Jimma Kingdom originated with the capture of Jiren and Hirmata (the great market) by the Diggo clan in the late eighteenth century. “Another group, the Diggo, who lived in Mana, began to extend their domain late in the eighteenth century. Their first move was towards the south, to Jiren, where they conquered the Lalo people. By gaining the Jiren area they also obtained control of the great market and trade center at Hirmata.” §REF§ (Lewis 2001, xv-xvi) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection §REF§ \r\n\r\n“The monarchy under study came to an end in 1932 when the Ethiopian government began to administer the area directly from Addis Ababa” §REF§ (Lewis 2001, xv-xvi) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 587, "polity": { "id": 637, "name": "so_adal_sultanate", "long_name": "Adal Sultanate", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1375, "polity_year_to": 1543, "comment": null, "description": "The Adal dynasty originated in the late 9th or early 10th centuries. At this stage the Adal was part of a larger Ifat Sultanate. It was not until the last quarter of the 14th century that Adal Sultanate formed. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 149) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ After a decisive military loss and the death of the ruler imam Ahmad Gurey, the Adal Sultanate was absorbed into other kingdoms. “From 1529 to 1542, he conquered almost all of Ethiopia, but in 1543 his armies were defeated by the allied Ethiopian-Portuguese forces and retreated and finally dispersed. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 45) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list §REF§" } ] }