Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
GET /api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=7
{ "count": 519, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=8", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=6", "results": [ { "id": 303, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1400, "polity_year_to": 1632, "comment": null, "description": " Before the Russian invasions, the territory was governed by independent Sakha and other tribes: 'The Sakha are thought to be an admixture of migrants from the Lake Baikal region with the aborigines of the Lena-probably mostly Evenk (Evenki), who have contributed much to their culture. Other evidence, however, points to a southern ancestry related to the Turkic-speaking tribes of the steppe and the Altai Mountains. The early history of the Sakha is little known, though epic tales date from the 10th century. In the 17th century they had peacefully assimilated with other northern peoples and consisted of 80 independent tribes, subdivided into clans.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people</a>§REF§ 'Yakut oral histories begin well before first contact with Russians in the seventeenth century. For example, OLONKHO (epics) date at least to the tenth century, a period of interethnic mixing, tensions, and upheaval that may have been a formative period in defining Yakut tribal affiliations. Ethnographic and archaeological data suggest that the ancestors of the Yakut, identified in some theories with the Kuriakon people, lived in an area near Lake Baikal and may have been part of the Uighur state bordering China. By the fourteenth century, Yakut ancestors migrated north, perhaps in small refugee groups, with herds of horses and cattle. After arrival in the Lena valley, they fought and intermarried with the native Evenk and Yukagir nomads. Thus, both peaceful and belligerent relations with northern Siberians, Chinese, Mongols, and Turkic peoples preceded Russian hegemony. When the first parties of Cossacks arrived at the Lena River in the 1620s, Yakut received them with hospitality and wariness. Several skirmishes and revolts followed, led at first by the legendary Yakut hero Tygyn.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ In the early 17th century, Cossack expeditions invaded Yakut territory and exacted tribute from the population: 'By 1620 a report had reached Tobolsk from the Mangaseya Cossacks of the Great (Lena) River and the Lena Yakut. In 1631 they descended by the Viliui River, a tributary of the Lena, to the Lena River and imposed tribute on the adjacent Yakut. In 1632 a party of Cossacks under the command of the Boyar’s son, Shakov, took tribute in sables from a clan of Viliui horse-breeding Yakut. The Viliui River farther up from its mouth was occupied by Tungus only. The northern boundary of the distribution of the Yakut at that time was the mouth of the Viliui. The whole Lena Valley from the mouth of the Viliui River to the south, at a distance of about 500 kilometers (or 710 miles) was occupied by Yakut. In their possession were also all the Lena islands of that region, rich in pasture lands. There is no definite information as to how far inland they penetrated at that period. We may admit, however, that the Yakut, being horse and cattle breeders, were hardly inclined to move into the dense forests far from the majority of their tribesmen, i.e., far from the Lena Valley. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the Yakut abode on the western banks of the Lena must have been the territory of the two present uluses of Yakutsk District, Namskij and Western Kangalassky. There, according to Yakut traditions, was the first place of refuge of their mythical forefather, the “Tatar” Elliei. From there a part of his nearest descendants could also have emigrated over the Lena islands to the eastern banks of the Lena River, where excellent pastures are as abundant as on the western banks.' §REF§Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut\", 220§REF§ During the Russian period, Yakutia came under Czarist political and administrative control: 'By 1642 the Lena valley was under tribute to the czar; peace was won only after a long siege of a formidable Yakut fortress. By 1700 the fort settlement of Yakutsk (founded 1632) was a bustling Russian administrative, commercial, and religious center and a launching point for further exploration into Kamchatka and Chukotka. Some Yakut moved northeast into territories they had previously not dominated, further assimilating the Evenk and Yukagir. Most Yakut, however, remained in the central meadowlands, sometimes assimilating Russians. Yakut leaders cooperated with Russian commanders and governors, becoming active in trade, fur-tax collection, transport, and the postal system. ' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§" }, { "id": 304, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1632, "polity_year_to": 1900, "comment": null, "description": " In the early 17th century, Cossack expeditions invaded Sakha territory and exacted tribute from the population: 'By 1620 a report had reached Tobolsk from the Mangaseya Cossacks of the Great (Lena) River and the Lena Yakut. In 1631 they descended by the Viliui River, a tributary of the Lena, to the Lena River and imposed tribute on the adjacent Yakut. In 1632 a party of Cossacks under the command of the Boyar’s son, Shakov, took tribute in sables from a clan of Viliui horse-breeding Yakut. The Viliui River farther up from its mouth was occupied by Tungus only. The northern boundary of the distribution of the Yakut at that time was the mouth of the Viliui. The whole Lena Valley from the mouth of the Viliui River to the south, at a distance of about 500 kilometers (or 710 miles) was occupied by Yakut. In their possession were also all the Lena islands of that region, rich in pasture lands. There is no definite information as to how far inland they penetrated at that period. We may admit, however, that the Yakut, being horse and cattle breeders, were hardly inclined to move into the dense forests far from the majority of their tribesmen, i.e., far from the Lena Valley. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the Yakut abode on the western banks of the Lena must have been the territory of the two present uluses of Yakutsk District, Namskij and Western Kangalassky. There, according to Yakut traditions, was the first place of refuge of their mythical forefather, the “Tatar” Elliei. From there a part of his nearest descendants could also have emigrated over the Lena islands to the eastern banks of the Lena River, where excellent pastures are as abundant as on the western banks.' §REF§Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut\", 220§REF§ During the Russian period, Yakutia came under Czarist political and administrative control: 'By 1642 the Lena valley was under tribute to the czar; peace was won only after a long siege of a formidable Yakut fortress. By 1700 the fort settlement of Yakutsk (founded 1632) was a bustling Russian administrative, commercial, and religious center and a launching point for further exploration into Kamchatka and Chukotka. Some Yakut moved northeast into territories they had previously not dominated, further assimilating the Evenk and Yukagir. Most Yakut, however, remained in the central meadowlands, sometimes assimilating Russians. Yakut leaders cooperated with Russian commanders and governors, becoming active in trade, fur-tax collection, transport, and the postal system. Fighting among Yakut communities decreased, although horse rustling and occasional anti-Russian violence continued. For example, a Yakut Robin Hood named Manchari led a band that stole from the rich (usually Russians) to give to the poor (usually Yakut) in the nineteenth century. Russian Orthodox priests spread through Yakutia, but their followers were mainly in the major towns. By 1900 a literate Yakut intelligentsia, influenced both by Russian merchants and political exiles, formed a party called the Yakut Union. Yakut revolutionaries such as Oiunskii and Ammosov led the Revolution and civil war in Yakutia, along with Bolsheviks such as the Georgian Ordzhonikidze.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§" }, { "id": 305, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -747, "polity_year_to": -656, "comment": null, "description": "\"Table 1. The chronology of the cultures on the Middle Nile, ninth century BC to sixteenth century AD.\" §REF§(Welsby 2002, 13) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>Kushite, Napatan phase, 9th-4th BCE<br>Kushite, Meroitic phase, 4th BCE - 4th CE<br>Post-Meroitic, Post-pyramidal Meroitic phase, 4th - 6th CE (below 3rd cataract)<br>X-Group, Ballana culture phase, 4th - 6th CE (between 1st and 3rd cataract)<br>Christian, Transitional phase, 550-600 CE<br>\"Kushite rule in Thebes lasted from around 750 BC until the transfer of power to Psamtik I marked by the arrival of the Saite princess Nitocris to be adopted by Amenirdis II in 656 BC.\"§REF§(Morkot 2014) Morkot, Robert G. Thebes under the Kushites. in Pischikova, Elena. ed. 2014. Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. American University in Cairo Press.§REF§<br>Kingdom of Meroe begins 591 BCE.<br>Kushite rule 747-664 BCE §REF§(Taylor 2000, 345)§REF§<br>\"Kushites still acknowledged in Upper Egypt until 656 BCE.\" §REF§(Alcock 2001, 245) Alcock, S E. 2001. Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 306, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 661, "polity_year_to": 750, "comment": null, "description": " The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib. It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Muslim Civil war in 750 CE. §REF§Esposito, John L, ed. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. p.691.§REF§" }, { "id": 307, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1593, "polity_year_to": 1767, "comment": null, "description": " <i>invaded NGA 1594 CE</i><br>\"On the fall of Ayudhya in 1569, the Burmese installed Maha Thammaracha (r. 1569-1590) on the throne, thoroughly looted the city, and led thousands of prisoners, both commoners and nobles, away to captivity in Burma.\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. 100)§REF§ Ayudhya freed itself from the Burmese yoke on 1593, with the Battle of Nong Sarai: \"Ayudhya's independence was now secured, and for the next generation, the Burmese kings would be on the defensive against Ayudhya, the tables of war thus turning for the first time in thirty years.\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. 103)§REF§ The tables turned in favour of Burma again in the 1760s: after a siege, \"on April 27, 1767, [the Burmese] finally breached the walls and took the ancient capital\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. 136)§REF§." }, { "id": 308, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1782, "polity_year_to": 1873, "comment": null, "description": " \"In April 1782, [what remained of the Ayutthaya aristocracy] [...] placed Thongduang on the throne as King Yotfa\"§REF§(Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, p. 27)§REF§. \"In the months preceding and following his second coronation as king in his own right (November 1873), Chulalongkorn began a series of reforms that displayed his modern sentiments and intentions\"§REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. 192)§REF§." }, { "id": 309, "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "tj_sarasm", "long_name": "Sarazm", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3500, "polity_year_to": -2000, "comment": null, "description": "Sarazm \"is an archaeological site bearing testimony to the development of human settlements in Central Asia, from the 4th millennium BCE to the end of the 3rd millennium BCE.\" §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1141\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1141</a>§REF§<br>\"Sarazm probably was abandoned around 2000 BCE, just at the Namazga V/VI transition. On the lower Zeravshan, the smaller villages of the Zaman Baba culture probably were abandoned about the same time as Sarazm.\"§REF§(Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 310, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 909, "polity_year_to": 1171, "comment": null, "description": " <i>909-969 CE is the Tunisian period. There was no vizarate in Tunisian phase. The Fatimid movement began in Syria and the intention from the outset was global dominance. Tunisia was the starting point.</i><br>\"The Fatimids' history really starts in Syria, in the town of Salamiya, where the future caliph Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi became the leader of the Ismaili movement. Missionary efforts were successful in Ifriqiyya in North Africa, and area centred around modern-day Tunisia, where Fatimid propaganda was taken up by the Kutama Berbers.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34) Raymond, Andre. Wood, Willard. trans. 2000. Cairo. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Began as revolutionary movement against Abbasids in Syria. \"Naturally, Islmaili religious claims and Fatimid political ones were both bitterly opposed by the Abbasids, forcing the Fatimid/Ismaili leadership to flee their first base in Syria in 909. They seized Ifriqiya - modern Tunisia and Eastern Algeria - took over the trans-Saharan gold-and-slave trade, built two great capitals - first Kairouan, then nearby Mahdiyya - and set up an autonomous state far from the reach of Baghdad.\"§REF§(Man 1999) Man, J. 1999. Atlas of the Year 1000. Harvard University Press.§REF§ Ismaili Shias rebelled against Aghlabid rule in Tunisia, 909 CE, then expanded former Aghlabid domain to Morocco. After a number of attempts, with assistance of Berber tribes, annexed Egypt in 969 CE. §REF§(Hodgson 1977, 21-28)§REF§ \"Isma'ili Shi'i Fatimids ... came to power with the assistance of local Kutama Berber tribesmen from the Little Kabylie Mountains in eastern Algeria.\"§REF§(Lindsay 2005, 74) Lindsay, James E. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis.§REF§ \"Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi proclaimed himself the first Fatimid Imam in 910.\"§REF§(Lindsay 2005, 103) Lindsay, James E. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis.§REF§<br>893 CE: da'wa activity in North Africa begins under da'i Abu Abd Allah al-Shi'i. 899 CE: Abd Allah al-Mahdi becomes Ismaili imam in Salamiyya, Syria. 902 CE: al-Mahdi migrates to North Africa. 910 CE: Fatimid state established with al-Mahdi first imam-caliph. 913-915 CE: First expedition to Egypt. 919-921 CE: Second expedition to Egypt. 935 CE: Third expedition to Egypt. 943 CE: Khariji revolt of Abu Yazid, who was defeated by al-Mansur in 947 CE. 958 CE: Fourth expedition to Egypt. 973-974 CE: Qaramita forces defeated in Egypt and Syria.§REF§(Ahmad 2009, xv-xvi) Ahmad, Taqi al-Din. Jiwa, Shainool. trans. 2009. Towards a Shi'i Mediterranean Empire: Fatimid Egypt and the Founding of Cairo. I.B. Tauris Publishers. London.§REF§ \"At the end of ninth century, an Isma'ili missionary converted Kutama Berber villagers in the mountains of Kabylia in eastern Algeria to the Fatimid cause. The leader of the movement, Ubaydallah, proclaimed himself caliph in 910. The Fatimids conquered Sijilmassa, Tahert, Qayrawan, and much of the rest of North Africa. They destroyed the Khariji principalities. Warfare also destroyed the trade routes and led to the rise of nomadism. The Fatimids conquered Egypt in 969. Moving their capital to Cairo, they abandoned North Africa to local Zirid (972-1148) and Hammadid (1015-1152) vassals.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 374-375)§REF§<br>In Salamiyya, Syria, around 900 CE an Abd Allah gained leadership of the da'wa and claimed the Imamate <i>(does this mean he claimed to be Hidden-Iman or al-Mahdi?)</i> but not all the da'is accepted this; in 903 CE he was forced to flee to North Africa where a friendly da'is had an established propaganda network.§REF§(Cortese and Calderini 2006, 15-16) Cortese, Delia. Calderini, Simonetta. 2006. Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ In 903 CE the da'is for North Africa began the conquest of Ifriqiya. In 904 CE Abd Allah went to Egypt where a propaganda network existed but returned to Sijilmasa in 905 CE.§REF§(Cortese and Calderini 2006, 16) Cortese, Delia. Calderini, Simonetta. 2006. Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ \"909 Abu 'Abd Allah and the Kutama took Sijilmasa. Initially, Abd Allah was acclaimed as caliph and towards the end of the year, upon arriving in Raqqada, 'Abd Allah's mahdi-ship was publicly announced and he was welcomed as ruler. 'Abd Allah al-Mahdi (henceforth al-Mahdi) became the first of a dynasty of imam-caliphs.\"§REF§(Cortese and Calderini 2006, 17) Cortese, Delia. Calderini, Simonetta. 2006. Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>\"The Fatimids conquered Egypt in 969. Moving their capital to Cairo, they abandoned North Africa to local Zirid (972-1148) and Hammadid (1015-1152) vassals.\" §REF§Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Fatimid state had long decline period mostly with incompetent viziers except Bahram (1135-1137 CE) and Tala'i ibn Ruzzik (1154-1161 CE).§REF§(Raymond 2000, 73) Raymond, Andre. Wood, Willard. trans. 2000. Cairo. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 311, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3000, "polity_year_to": -2000, "comment": null, "description": "Early Bronze I (EB I) 3000 - 2700/2600 B.C.E.<br>Early Bronze II (EB II) 2700/2600 - 2300 B.C.E.<br>Early Bronze III (EB III) 2300 - 2000 B.C.E.<br>The beginning date of this period is very controversial, because the transition from the end of Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age I period is far from clear. Early Bronze Age III period sees extensive changes which were great foundations for Anatolia's first empire §REF§Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10§REF§." }, { "id": 312, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1500, "polity_year_to": -1400, "comment": null, "description": "1650-1175 BCE §REF§Bryce T. R. (2005) <i>The Kingdom of the Hittites</i>, New York: Oxford University Press§REF§ c. 1650 BC: (Old Kingdom) The founding of the Hittite Kingdom. (Labarna I or Hattusili I) -c. 1175 BC: The fall of the Hittite state caused by the invasions of the Sea Peoples, and attacks the people of Kaskians and Assyrians. End date: the destruction of Hattusa." }, { "id": 313, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2000, "polity_year_to": -1700, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Açıkkol A., Günay I., Akpolat E., Güleç E. 2009. A middle bronze age case of trephanation from central Anatolia, Turkey. <i>Bull Int Assoc Paleodont.</i> 3(2). p. 30§REF§<br>MBI cca. 2000-1850 B.C.<br>MBII cca. 1850-1650 B.C. (actual Assyrian Colony Period, which is divided into two periods due to data from Kültepe-Kaneš: 1850-1750 B.C. visible in mound Stratum 8 and <i>karum</i> strata II; 1730-1700 B.C. visible in mound Stratum 7 and <i>karum</i> strata Ib)<br>MBIII cca. 1650-1500 B.C.All dates are following the lower chronology§REF§Açıkkol A., Günay I., Akpolat E., Güleç E. 2009. A middle bronze age case of trephanation from central Anatolia, Turkey. <i>Bull Int Assoc Paleodont.</i> 3(2). p. 30§REF§." }, { "id": 314, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 632, "polity_year_to": 866, "comment": null, "description": " Byzantine civilization \"began to emerge in its own right in the second half of the seventh century.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 164) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) - Michael III (r.842-867 CE).§REF§(Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>632 CE: Death of the Prophet Mohammed, beginning of the Arab expansion; this and other developments led to a dramatic transformation of Byzantium with regard to dimension and complexity of the society. - 867 CE: Dynastic change to the so-called Macedonian Emperors, beginning of a period of renewed expansion and increasing societal complexity. §REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences§REF§" }, { "id": 315, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 867, "polity_year_to": 1072, "comment": null, "description": "Basil I (r.867-886 CE) - Romanus IV Diogenes (r.1068-1071 CE) and Michael VII Ducas (r.1071-1078 CE).§REF§(Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>867 CE: \"Dynastic change to the so-called Macedonian Emperors, beginning of a period of renewed expansion and increasing societal complexity\".§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences§REF§" }, { "id": 316, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1073, "polity_year_to": 1204, "comment": null, "description": "Michael VII Ducas (r.1071-1078 CE) - Isaac II Angelus (again) and Alexius IV Angelus (r.1203-1204 CE), Alexius V Murtzuphlus (r.1204 CE).§REF§(Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>1204 CE: \"Conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, temporal collapse of the Empire\"§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences§REF§" }, { "id": 317, "polity": { "id": 170, "name": "tr_cappadocia_2", "long_name": "Late Cappadocia", "start_year": -330, "end_year": 16 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -330, "polity_year_to": 16, "comment": null, "description": "<i>{380 BCE; 322 BCE}-{95 BCE; 93 BCE; 17 CE} ... written as code, these are the alternative dates. However we cannot code uncertainty for the duration variable. 380 BCE - 17 CE would be the code for the broadest definition.</i><br>Although the territory of Cappadocia had a ruler before 322 BCE, it was only after Alexander’s conquests in Asia Minor and the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire that Cappadocia became an independent kingdom. §REF§Simonetta, B. (1977) The Coins of the Cappadocian Kings. Fribourg: Office du Livre, p15-16§REF§ The polity gradually fell into other hands, and was fought over by the more prominent powers in Asia Minor, Pontus and Bithynia, as well as the Roman Empire to the west §REF§Sherwin-White, A. N. (1977) Roman Involvement in Anatolia, 167-88 B. C. The Journal of Roman Studies. 67, pp. 62-75.§REF§§REF§Sherwin-White, A. N. (1984) Roman Foreign Policy in the Near East, 168 BC to AD 1. London: Duckworth.§REF§. Cappadocia was in a good strategic position for all of these polities to either extend their own states or to buffer the territory they already had. The end of the rule of the Ariarathid dynasty came in the 90s BCE, although the exact dates are unknown. At this time, the kingdoms of Pontus and Bithynia were fighting over Cappadocia (and murdering or marrying those in the Cappadocian ruling family to gain a footing), until Rome declared the ‘freedom’ of Cappadocia. From then on, Cappadocia was ruled by Ariobarzanes, by the grace of Rome, and was eventually to be annexed by Rome §REF§Ansen, E. M. (1988) Antigonus, the Satrap of Phrygia. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 37, H. 4 (4th Qtr.), pp. 471-477, p472§REF§§REF§Eilers, C. (2003) A Roman East: Pompey’s Settlement to the Death of Augustus. In, Erskine, A. (ed.) A Companion to the Hellenistic World. Blackwell: Malden, Oxford, pp90-102, p90§REF§. The end dates correspond to the end of the Ariarathid dynasty (c. 95 BCE) and then to the end of the rule of Archelaus (17 CE)§REF§Simonetta, B. (1977) The Coins of the Cappadocian Kings. Fribourg: Office du Livre, p45-46§REF§.<br>The rulers of Cappadocia: §REF§Iossif, P. P and Lorber, C. C. (2010) Hypaithros: A Numismatic Contribution to the Military History of Cappadocia. Historia, Band 59/4, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart. p432§REF§§REF§Dmitriev, S. (2006) Cappadocian Dynastic Rearrangements on the Eve of the First Mithridatic War. Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 55, H. 3, pp. 285-297.§REF§§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Cappadocia\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Cappadocia</a>§REF§<br>Datames (c. 380-362 BCE)<br>Ariamnes I (362-350 BCE)<br>Mithrobuzanes (died 334 BCE)<br>Ariarathes I (350-331 BCE)<br>Ariarathes I (331-322 BCE)<br>Ariarathes II (301-280 BCE)<br>Ariaramnes (c. 275-225 BCE)<br>Ariarathes III (c. 225-220 BCE)<br>Ariarathes IV Eusebes (220-163 BCE)<br>Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopator (163-130 BCE)<br>Orophernes (157 BCE)<br>Ariarathes VI Epiphanes Philopator (130-116 BCE)<br>Ariarathes VII Philometor (116-101 BCE)<br>Ariarathes VIII (101-96 BCE)<br>Ariarathes IX (c.95 BCE)<br>Ariobarzanes I Philoromaios (95-63 BCE)<br>Ariobarzanes II Philopator (c. 63-51 BCE)<br>Ariobarzanes III Eusebes Philoromaios (52-42 BCE)<br>Ariarathes X Eusebes Philadelphos (42-36 BCE)<br>Archelaus (36 BCE - 17 CE)" }, { "id": 318, "polity": { "id": 158, "name": "tr_konya_eca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -6000, "polity_year_to": -5500, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Düring Bleda S., 2010. The prehistory of Asia Minor. From complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies.,Cambridge University Press, p. 127-129§REF§<br>The chronology for areas of Central Anatolia is based on a modified version of the three-age system developed in European archaeology (Stone, Bronze and Iron ages). For areas of Anatolia, two additional terms were introduced: Aceramic Neolithic and Chalcolithic. The latter is not, as the name would suggest, determined on the basis of copper artifacts, but on the basis of the emergence of painted pottery. It derives from Mesopotamia, where the division of the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic was related to the introduction of painted pottery.<br>The most recent attempt to construct a healthy chronological scheme for the Central Anatolian Neolithic was proposed by the CANeW workshop§REF§Özbaşaran, M., Buitenhuis, H., “Proposal for a regional terminology for Central Anatolia” The Neolithic of Central Anatolia. Internal developments and external relations during the 9th-6th millennia cal BC, F. Gerard, L. Thiessen (eds.).2002, Ege Yayinlari, Istanbul;§REF§. On the basis of the archaeological evidence from various sites in the region, the time trajectories of the development were identified, taking into account not a wide scope of aspects - architectural developments, burial practices, material culture (pottery, lithic industry, metallurgy etc.) and economy. The main unit of the proposed scheme is ECA - Early Central Anatolian. The ECA IV (6000-5500 cal BC) corresponds to what is conventionally labeled as 'Early Chalcolithic'.<br>At the start of the Early Chalcolithic, around 6000 cal. BC, we can see a continuation of the changes settlement patterns that began in the Late Neolithic. This period is marked by a shift in settlement from Çatalhöyük East to Çatalhöyük West and the existence of full- farming sites such as Can Hasan I, Koşk Höyük and Tepecik-Çiftlik. The number of sites in the region increased §REF§Baird, D., ‘Konya Plain’ Anatolian Archaeology 3 (1997), p. 13§REF§.<br>The date 5500 cal BC marks a major disruption: most of the sites were abandoned. This date marks the beginning of the Middle Chalcolithic - it is a completely new period different from the preceding, a prelude of a new system§REF§Özbaşaran, M., Buitenhuis, H., 2002, Proposal for a regional terminology for Central Anatolia, F. Gerard, L. Thiessen (eds.), The Neolithic of Central Anatolia. Internal developments and external relations during the 9th-6th millennia cal BC, Ege Yayinlari, Istanbul; p.71§REF§. The nature of this major breakage is still under-recognized.<br>As for radiocarbon dating:The levels II-V (Neolithic and Chalcolithic)of Koşk Höyük date to 6300-5600 cal BC§REF§Öztan, A. 2012 “Koşk Höyük” .M. Özdoğan , N. Başgelen, P. Kuniholm (eds.) , The Neolithic in Turkey. New excavations & new research, Central Turkey, Archaeology and Art publications, Istanbul: 45§REF§.From the Early Chalcolithic Level 3 at Tepecik - Çiftlik, we have a single c14 date - around 6000 BC§REF§Bıçakçı,E. 2012, “Tepecik - Çiftlik” M. Özdoğan , N. Başgelen, P. Kuniholm (eds.) , The Neolithic in Turkey. New excavations & new research, Central Turkey, Archaeology and Art publications, Istanbul: 104§REF§.Six radiocarbon dates are available from Can Hasan 2B which, when combined, provide a time range between 5715-5635 cal. BCE. Absolute dates from levels 7-3 are not available§REF§Çilingiroglu, Ç. \"Central-West Anatolia at the end of 7th and beginning of 6th millennium BCE in the light of pottery from Ulucak (Izmir).\" (2009).§REF§.As for the Çatalhöyük West, the c14 samples were taken from a deep sounding and cannot draw a conclusive picture yet. Nevertheless, onedate 5980 to 5810 cal BC (68% probability§REF§Biehl, P., et al. \"One community and two tells: the phenomenon of relocating tell settlements at the turn of the 7th and 6th millennia in Central Anatolia.\" Socio-environmental Dynamics Over the Last 12 (2012): 59.§REF§)." }, { "id": 319, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -5500, "polity_year_to": -3000, "comment": null, "description": "The current chronological framework used in Anatolian archaeology is mainly based on a local variant of the Three Age System whose transitional dates are mostly imported from outside the region. The transition from the Late Chalcolithic to the Bronze Age is arbitrary. In Anatolia at this time is the lack of specific units of cultures, and with a definite spatial and chronological extension §REF§Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 7§REF§" }, { "id": 320, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 395, "polity_year_to": 631, "comment": null, "description": " 395 CE: permanent division of the Roman Empire between an Emperor in the West and one in the East - 632 CE: Death of the Prophet Mohammed, beginning of the Arab expansion; this and other developments led to a dramatic transformation of Byzantium with regard to dimension and complexity of the society." }, { "id": 321, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1400, "polity_year_to": -1180, "comment": null, "description": "1650-1175 BCE §REF§Bryce T. R. (2005) <i>The Kingdom of the Hittites</i>, New York: Oxford University Press§REF§ c. 1650 BC: (Old Kingdom) The founding of the Hittite Kingdom. (Labarna I or Hattusili I) -c. 1175 BC: The fall of the Hittite state caused by the invasions of the Sea Peoples, and attacks the people of Kaskians and Assyrians. End date: the destruction of Hattusa.<br><a href=\"https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-near-eastern-world/the-last-days-of-hattusa/\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-near-eastern-world/the-last-days-of-hattusa/ </a><br>" }, { "id": 322, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1650, "polity_year_to": -1500, "comment": null, "description": "1650-1175 BCE §REF§Bryce T. R. (2005) <i>The Kingdom of the Hittites</i>, New York: Oxford University Press§REF§ c. 1650 BC: (Old Kingdom) The founding of the Hittite Kingdom. (Labarna I or Hattusili I) -c. 1175 BC: The fall of the Hittite state caused by the invasions of the Sea Peoples, and attacks the people of Kaskians and Assyrians. End date: the destruction of Hattusa." }, { "id": 323, "polity": { "id": 168, "name": "tr_lydia_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia", "start_year": -670, "end_year": -546 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -670, "polity_year_to": -546, "comment": null, "description": "Began as a Neo-Hittite state. period earlier than 700 BCE covered by quasi-polity. 546 BCE: date of Persian conquest of Anatolia.<br>Founded by Gyges around 670 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 533) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Herodotus says Gyges followed by Ardys, Sadyattes and Alyattes. These kings expelled the Cimmerians and built the kingdom, and conquered Greek cities in Asia Minor. Croesus was the last king before the Persians took Sardis.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 544) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Mermnad dynasty kingsGyges (680 - 644 BCE); Ardys (644 - late 7th century BCE); Sadyattes (late 7th century - 610 BCE); Alyattes (610 - 560 BCE); Croesus (560 - 540's BCE)<br>" }, { "id": 324, "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -323, "polity_year_to": -281, "comment": null, "description": " The starting date corresponds with the death of Alexander the Great and the beginning of Lysimachus' governorship of the Thracian territories. The end date is when Lysimachus' kingdom was taken over by the Seleucid Empire.§REF§Lund, H. S. (1992) Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 325, "polity": { "id": 156, "name": "tr_konya_mnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -7000, "polity_year_to": -6600, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 326, "polity": { "id": 155, "name": "tr_konya_enl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Neolithic", "start_year": -9600, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -9600, "polity_year_to": -7000, "comment": null, "description": " {9600 BCE; 9500 BCE}-7000 BCE <i>uncertainty/disagreement cannot be coded for this variable</i>" }, { "id": 327, "polity": { "id": 157, "name": "tr_konya_lnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Neolithic", "start_year": -6600, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -6600, "polity_year_to": -6000, "comment": null, "description": " This time range occurs in literature as 'Late Ceramic Neolithic', the beginning of which is dated to 6600 BCE when at the site of Çatalhöyük there is clear evidence of cultural transition§REF§Düring B. 2006.<i>Constructing communities: Clustered Neighbourhood Settlements of the Central Anatolia Neolithic c.a. 8.500-5500 Cal BC</i>, Nederlands Instituut voor Het Nabije Oosten. pg. 17.§REF§." }, { "id": 328, "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1180, "polity_year_to": -900, "comment": null, "description": "1180-900 BCEIn south-east Anatolia \"The crucial period when the region was organised into city-states covers the five hundred years from ca. 1200 to ca. 700 B.C.\"§REF§(Thuesen 2002, 43)§REF§<br>mid-9th century BCE Assyrian records suggest Tabal \"consisted of a number of small independent states (which may have evolved several centuries earlier) whose rulers became tributaries of Assyria.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 43)§REF§<br>\"The Neo-Hittite period can be divided into two main phases, as suggested by Mazzoni ([1995] 189). The first phase covers the period from the 12th century to the mid 9th century B.C. This period is characterised by the rise of kingdoms each centred on a town. Some of these towns were new foundations, but some were refoundations of earlier urban centres now embellished with monumental iconography. The second period covers the ca. 150 years from the mid 9th century to the Assyrian conquest in the late 8th century B.C. This phase saw the growth of centres and also an increasing concern for security expressed in the building of fortified strongholds throughout the region.\" §REF§(Thuesen 2002, 45-46)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 329, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1299, "polity_year_to": 1402, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§<br>Dynasty starts with Osman of Sogut, the ruler of a principality near modern Eskisehir in Turkey.§REF§(Palmer 1992)§REF§<br>Shaw refers to an \"interregnum\" (in the aftermath of the defeat at Ankara against Tamerlane 1402 CE§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§ ) 1402-1413 CE in which \"different elements of Ottoman society struggled for power, with chaos again enveloping the entire area.\" Breakdown was a \"struggle for power between the Turkish notables and their descendants, who wanted to restore the gazi tradition and the primacy of the High Islamic institutions of the Seljuks, and the survivors of the kapikullars and the Christian advisors, who proposed opposite policies... As Bayezit's sons fought for power, they gained support of one or another of these groups, with the alliances changing rapidly as the groups changed their estimates of which prince had the best chance of leading them to victory.\" §REF§(Shaw 1976, 12, 22, 36)§REF§" }, { "id": 330, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1402, "polity_year_to": 1517, "comment": null, "description": " \"Period marked in the beginning by reconstruction after defeat at Ankara 1402 (resp. after the following civil war until 1412) and in the end by the conquest of Mamluk Egypt and Syria, which marks the beginning of a period of stronger Islamisation of the Empire.\" §REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§<br>Period can be considered to begin, officially, in 1413. §REF§(Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§<br>Succession§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 430)§REF§<br>Mehmed I (1413 -)<br>Murad II (1421 -)<br>Mehmed II (1444 -)<br>Murad II (1446 -) -- 1449 CE reached Danube.<br>Mehmed II (1451 -) -- 1453 CE conquest of Constantinople. New naval base \"based on Italian designs and Greek seamanship\". §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 436)§REF§<br>Bayzid II (1481 -) -- 1507 CE Portuguese cut off commerce to Red Sea and Mediterranean§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 434)§REF§<br>Selim I (1512 -) -- after Battle of Chaldiran (1514 CE) Ottomans annex eastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, control trade routes from Tabriz to Aleppo and Bursa.\" 1516-1517 CE Ottomans take Syria and Egypt from Mamluks. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 434)§REF§" }, { "id": 331, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1517, "polity_year_to": 1683, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 332, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1683, "polity_year_to": 1839, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 333, "polity": { "id": 166, "name": "tr_phrygian_k", "long_name": "Phrygian Kingdom", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -695 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -900, "polity_year_to": -695, "comment": null, "description": "\"The New Chronology of Iron Age Gordion argues that the history and archaeology of the site of Gordion, in central Turkey, have been misunderstood since the beginning of its excavation in the 1950s. The first excavation director, Rodney Young, found evidence for substantial destruction during the first decade of fieldwork; this was interpreted as proof that Gordion had been destroyed ca. 700 B.C. by the Kimmerians, a group of invaders from the Caucusus/Black Sea region, as attested in several ancient literary sources. During the last decade, however, renewed research on the archaeological evidence, within, above, and below the destruction level indicated that the catastrophe that destroyed much of Gordion occurred 100 years earlier, in 800 B.C., and was the result of a fire that quickly got out of control rather than a foreign invasion.\"§REF§(Publisher's monograph) C Brian Rose. Gareth Darbyshire. Eds. 2011. The New Chronology of Iron Age Gordion (Gordion Special Studies). University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.§REF§<br>\"According to Greek tradition, the earliest Phrygians were immigrants from Macedon and Thrace. ... In all probability, the references to the Phrygians in the Iliad are anachronistic. The arrival of this people in Anatolia almost certainly dates to the early Iron Age, to the decade immediately following the Hittite kingdom's collapse early in the 12th century. ... Probably by the end of the millennium, a Phrygian state had begun to evolve.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 39-40)§REF§<br>From the beginning of Early Phrygian period, according to Gordion stratigraphy §REF§Voigt, M., \"Gordion: the Changing Political and Economic Roles of a First Millenium B.C.E. City\" <i>Oxford Handbook of Ancien Anatolia (2011</i>), pg:1075§REF§, to the conquest by Lydian Kingdom§REF§Ziółkowski, A., 2009, <i>General History: Antiquity</i>, pg:351§REF§.<br>Conquest by Lydia after Gordion sacked by Cimmerians 695 BCE.<br>695 BCE: sacked by Cimmerians. Then subject to Lydia. Not a Neo-Hittite state." }, { "id": 334, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 285, "polity_year_to": 394, "comment": null, "description": " The Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the III century (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian. §REF§(Boatwright et al. 2012)§REF§<br>Diocletian 284-305 CE.<br>Tetrarchy 293-313 CE.<br>Constantinian dynasty 305-363 CE.<br>Valentinian dynasty 364-378 CE.<br>Theodosian dynasty 379-457 CE.<br>\"The problem of intraelite conflict appears in Byzantine history after the death of Marcian in 457.\"§REF§(Baker 2011, 224)§REF§ 457 CE marks the end of the Theodosian dynasty.<br>" }, { "id": 335, "polity": { "id": 171, "name": "tr_rum_sultanate", "long_name": "Rum Sultanate", "start_year": 1077, "end_year": 1307 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1077, "polity_year_to": 1307, "comment": null, "description": "1077 - \"The role of the Saljuq family in this confusing and poorly documented period is unclear. The first reliable evidence for the activities of Solaymān b. Qotlomoš, traditionally regarded as the founder of the Sultanate of Rum, indicates that because of the prestige of his Saljuq lineage he was called on in 1074 by some Turkmen of Syria to lead them\" §REF§Andrew Peacock 'SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a>§REF§<br>1307 - the last full year of the reing of the last Saljuq sultan Masʿud II. Although Anatolia had already been under Mongol authority since 1240s. §REF§Andrew Peacock 'SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a>§REF§<br>\"This first century of the Saljuq sultanate in Anatolia is the most obscure part of Saljuq history. Our understanding is inhibited by our lack of any local Muslim sources, so that we are mostly dependent on Christian sources in Syriac, Armenian, Latin, and above all Greek, as well as the occasional references in works by authors from the central Islamic lands, for whom Anatolia was an obscure frontier region. This poverty of information probably suggests that no local Muslim chronicles were written, for the historian Ebn-e Bibi (d. after 1285) remarked that it was impossible to find information about Anatolia before the reign of Ḡiāṯ-al-Din Kayḵosrow (Ebn-e Bibi, 1956, p. 11).\" §REF§Andrew Peacock 'SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 336, "polity": { "id": 167, "name": "tr_tabal_k", "long_name": "Tabal Kingdoms", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -730 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -900, "polity_year_to": -730, "comment": null, "description": "ruling line possibly dates to mid-9th century BCE but could be earlier §REF§(Bryce 2012, 142)§REF§<br>Northern Tabal: probably an Assyrian tributary from 837 BCE?? until 730 BCE when Tiglath-Pileser deposed and replaced king Wasusarma. §REF§(Bryce 2012, 144)§REF§" }, { "id": 338, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "us_cahokia_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1275 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1200, "polity_year_to": 1275, "comment": null, "description": "\"The people that were a part of Cahokia made a conscious decision not to continue after ca. A.D. 1250.\" §REF§(Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 24)§REF§" }, { "id": 339, "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1640, "polity_year_to": 1717, "comment": null, "description": " 1640 does not correspond with the actual \"beginning\" of this quasi-polity, but, rather, with the earliest written records describing the Illinois Confederacy.§REF§Illinois State Museum, The Illinois, History (2000), <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html</a>§REF§ Small numbers of French explorers, missionaries, and traders were present from the 1670s onwards,§REF§(Emerson and Brown 1992, 79) Thomas E. Emerson and James A. Brown. 1992. 'The Late Prehistory and Protohistory of Illinois', in <i>Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent</i>, edited by J. Walthall and T. Emerson, 77-125. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.§REF§ but it was not until 1717 (the beginning of Walthall and Emerson's 'colonization period') that the Illinois Country was incorporated into the French colony of Louisiane, and there was a 'florescence of French activity in the Mississippi Valley'.§REF§(Walthall and Emerson 1992, 9-10) John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. 'Indians and French in the Midcontinent', in <i>Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent</i>, edited by J. A. Walthall and T. E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 340, "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1566, "polity_year_to": 1713, "comment": null, "description": " The Iroquois Confederacy pursued aggressive expansionism: 'The Iroquoian confederacy was organized sometime between 1400 and A.D. 1600 for the purpose of maintaining peaceful relations between the 5 constituent tribes. Subsequent to European contact relations within the confederacy were sometimes strained as each of the 5 tribes sought to expand and maintain its own interests in the developing fur trade. For the most part, however, the fur trade served to strengthen the confederacy because tribal interests often complemented one another and all gained from acting in concert. The League was skillful at playing French and English interests off against one another to its advantage and thereby was able to play a major role in the economic and political events of northeastern North America during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Iroquois aggressively maintained and expanded their role in the fur trade and as a result periodically found themselves at war with their neighbors, such as the Huron, Petun, and the Neutral to the West and the Susquehannock to the south. Much of the fighting was done by the Seneca, the most powerful of the Iroquoian tribes. From 1667 to the 1680s the Iroquois maintained friendly relations with the French and during this time Jesuit missions were established among each of the 5 tribes. However, Iroquois aggression and expansion eventually brought them into conflict with the French and, at the same time, into closer alliance with the English. In 1687, 1693 and 1696 French military expeditions raided and burned Iroquois villages and fields. During Queen Anne's War (1702-1713) the Iroquois allied with the English and at the War's end were acknowledged to be British subjects, though they continued to aggressively maintain and extend their middleman role between English traders at Fort Orange (Albany) and native groups farther west.' §REF§Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois§REF§ The Confederacy achieved maximum geograhpical expansion by the mid-17th century: 'Between the Hudson and lake Erie, our broad territory was occupied by the Ho-de[unknown] -no-sau-nee, or Iroquois, scattered far and wide, in small encampments, or in disconnected villages. Their council-fires, emblematical of civil jurisdiction, burned continuously from the Hudson to Niagara. At the era of Dutch discovery (1609), they had pushed their permanent possession as far west as the Genesee; and shortly after, about 1650, they extended it to the Niagara. They then occupied the entire territory of our State west of the Hudson, with the exception of certain tracts upon that river below the junction of the Mohawk, in the possession of the River Indians, and the country of the Delawares, upon the Delaware river. But both these had been subdued by the conquering Iroquois, and had become tributary nations.' §REF§Morgan, Lewis Henry, and Herbert M. Lloyd 1901. “League Of The Ho-De’-No-Sau-Nee Or Iroquois. Vol. I”, 36§REF§" }, { "id": 341, "polity": { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1714, "polity_year_to": 1848, "comment": null, "description": " 'During Queen Anne's War (1702-1713) the Iroquois allied with the English and at the War's end were acknowledged to be British subjects, though they continued to aggressively maintain and extend their middleman role between English traders at Fort Orange (Albany) and native groups farther west.' §REF§Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois§REF§ During the 18th century, the Iroquois struggled to maintain their autonomy vis-à-vis colonial incursions, until they were caught up in the American Revolution: 'For a century and a quarter before the American Revolution, the Iroquois stood athwart the path from Albany to the Great Lakes, keeping the route from permanent settlement by the French and containing the Dutch and the English. In the 18th century the Six Nations remained consistent and bitter enemies of the French, who were allied with their traditional foes. The Iroquois became dependent on the British in Albany for European goods (which were cheaper there than in Montreal), and thus Albany was never attacked. The Iroquois’ success in maintaining their autonomy vis-à-vis both the French and English was a remarkable achievement for an aboriginal people that could field only 2,200 men from a total population of scarcely 12,000. During the American Revolution, a schism developed among the Iroquois. The Oneida and Tuscarora espoused the American cause, while the rest of the league, led by Chief Joseph Brant’s Mohawk loyalists, fought for the British out of Niagara, decimating several isolated American settlements. The fields, orchards, and granaries, as well as the morale of the Iroquois, were destroyed in 1779 when U.S. Major General John Sullivan led a retaliatory expedition of 4,000 Americans against them, defeating them near present-day Elmira, New York. Having acknowledged defeat in the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784), the Iroquois Confederacy effectively came to an end. In a treaty that was made at Canandaigua, New York, 10 years later, the Iroquois and the United States each pledged not to disturb the other in lands that had been relinquished or reserved. Of the Six Nations, the Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora remained in New York, eventually settling on reservations; the Mohawk and Cayuga withdrew to Canada; and, a generation later, a large group of the Oneida departed for Wisconsin.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-Confederacy\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-Confederacy</a>§REF§ During the reservation period, the Iroquois were increasingly subject to paternalistic treatment by federal American authorities and experienced significant political transformations: 'In 1848 Senecas living on the Cattaraugus and Allegany reservations petitioned the federal government to change the method of distributing their annuities. In the pastthey had been distributed through the chiefs who took aportion for government purposes; by the new method they were to be distributed directly to heads of families.The chiefs opposed this move, and the dispute opened old wounds.' §REF§Abler, Thomas S., and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Seneca”, 511§REF§ 'On December 4, 1848, a convention held on Cattaraugus abolished government by chiefs on Allegany and Cattaraugus. The convention adopted a written constitution that instituted an annually elected council of 18 members and an executive consisting of president, clerk,and treasurer. It retained the judicial offices of peacemakers, which had been established under the chief's government(Society of Friends 1857).' §REF§Abler, Thomas S., and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Seneca”, 511§REF§ 'The Tonawanda Senecas had refused to participate inthe Revolution of 1848 that changed the form of government on the Cattaraugus and Allegany reservations from governance by hereditary chiefs to an elected council as that would have weakened their argument that the 1842 compromise treaty was not binding on them becausetheir chiefs had not signed it. Thus they retained their council of hereditary chiefs. After their fight to retain their reservation had been won, they changed their formof governance to provide for the election of three peacemakers (from the chiefs), a clerk, a treasurer, and a marshall by the adult men at an annual election. But they retained the council of chiefs as their governing body.' §REF§Abler, Thomas S., and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Seneca”, 512§REF§" }, { "id": 342, "polity": { "id": 100, "name": "us_proto_haudenosaunee", "long_name": "Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1565 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1300, "polity_year_to": 1565, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 343, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1778, "polity_year_to": 1819, "comment": null, "description": " Justification for start date: Cook’s first arrival in the archipelago (1778 at Kauai - he did not visit the Big Island until 1779). Justification for end date: Kamehameha I dies, kapu system is abolished." }, { "id": 344, "polity": { "id": 22, "name": "us_woodland_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Early Woodland", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -600, "polity_year_to": -150, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 345, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 900, "polity_year_to": 1050, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 346, "polity": { "id": 25, "name": "us_woodland_4", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland II", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 450, "polity_year_to": 600, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 347, "polity": { "id": 23, "name": "us_woodland_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Middle Woodland", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -150, "polity_year_to": 300, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 348, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 600, "polity_year_to": 750, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 349, "polity": { "id": 24, "name": "us_woodland_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland I", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 300, "polity_year_to": 450, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 350, "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "us_cahokia_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1275, "polity_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "<br>\"The people that were a part of Cahokia made a conscious decision not to continue after ca. A.D. 1250.\" §REF§(Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 24)§REF§ \"We know that by the mid-300s Cahokia was basically abandoned.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 148)§REF§" }, { "id": 351, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 750, "polity_year_to": 900, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 352, "polity": { "id": 29, "name": "us_oneota", "long_name": "Oneota", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1650 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1400, "polity_year_to": 1650, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§G. Gibbon, Oneota, in P. Peregrine, M. Ember and Human Relations Area Files, Inc. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 6: North America (2001), pp. 389-407§REF§<br>from 1400 Iseminger 2010<a href=\"http://seshat.info/File:Iseminger2010.21.jpg\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://seshat.info/File:Iseminger2010.21.jpg </a>" }, { "id": 353, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1227, "polity_year_to": 1402, "comment": null, "description": "Genghis Khan divided territories of the Mongol conquests into four ulus in 1227 CE.§REF§(Khan 2003, 31) Khan, A. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group.§REF§<br>" } ] }
