Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
GET /api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 519, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 682, "polity_year_to": 744, "comment": null, "description": " \"Beginning in the 680s a new series of Turk successes resulted in the formation and rapid expansion of the second expansive polity. For decades the second Turkic polity raided Tang China to exact tribute. In 734 the famous khaghan Bilgee was assassinated and a variety of infighting among factions continued for a decade. By 744 an internal coalition emerged and defeated the last imperial elite and their troops.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 226)§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 745, "polity_year_to": 840, "comment": null, "description": " \"The Uighur Empire, which ruled Mongolia from 744 to 840, converted to Manicheism and built numerous cities and settlements in Mongolia.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 560)§REF§" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 100, "polity_year_to": 250, "comment": null, "description": " \"The Xianbei were another polity from northeast China, with origins closely related ethnically and linguistically to the Wuhuan. By A.D. 155 the Xianbei had eclipsed the Wuhuan and were poised to fill the gap left by the fall of the Xiongnu polity.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 222-223)§REF§ \"Subsequent to the death of Tanshikhuai, his brother came to power, followed by a nephew, and then an unrelated leader (Kebineng), but unity was ephemeral and by A.D. 235 the Xianbei broke into a series of smaller polities, eventually reemerging as the Toba (northern) Wei polity.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1400, "polity_year_to": -300, "comment": null, "description": " \"Based on radiocarbon dating, the time-span of material patterns associated with Xiongnu archaeology range as early as 400/300 BC and as late as 200 AD. It is in the nature of archaeological dating to have wide error ranges but despite this, these archaeological patterns probably precede and postdate the Xiongnu chronology given in the histories (i.e., 209 BC to c. 93 AD).\" §REF§(Honeychurch 2015, 221)§REF§" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -60, "polity_year_to": 100, "comment": null, "description": " 60BCE - 93 CE or 150 CE. \"Before 50 B.C., the Xiongnu split into a northern and southern polity. Both remained well organized and expansionistic at first, but eventually the southern Xiongnu (estimated at 200,000 people) became a vassal state of the Han Chinese, and by A.D. 150 their political control was virtually nonexistent. Periods of famine and civil war within the Xiongnu polities may have weakened them further. (Christian 1998, p. 202) It is generally acknowledged that by A.D. 155 the Xiongnu empire no longer existed, although some authors date the end of the empire as early as A.D. 93 (Honeychurch and Amartuvshin 2006, p. 262).\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 222)§REF§" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -209, "polity_year_to": -60, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1670, "polity_year_to": 1757, "comment": null, "description": " 1635? “In 1635, the year following Ligdan Khan’s death, the Oirat prince Ba’atur Khongtaiji (1634-53) of the Choros clan united all four Oirat tribes and founded the Dzungar (Junghar) khanate, with himself as its leader (see Chapter 6 above). In1640, at his instigation, an assembly was convened of Oirat, Khalkha, Koko Nor and Kalmuk rulers and representatives of the high clergy, at which the Oirat Mongol Legal Code was drafted and enacted, under which all were urged to consolidate their own internal position and to pool their efforts in order to resist the Manchus. However, fragmented as they were, the Mongols found these measures extremely difficult to carry out in practice. §REF§( Ishjamts 2003, 219-220)§REF§<br><i>location of Kerulen river</i> <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kherlen_River\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kherlen_River </a>" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1078, "polity_year_to": 1203, "comment": null, "description": "collapsed 1203 CE, after the Sosso took the capital, Kumbi Saleh.There seems to be a consensus within French-language scholarship that the Ghana empire didn't fall to the Soussou in 1203. Instead, they suggest it gradually collapsed at the end of the 11th century, and no longer played an important commercial role from the 13th century onwards. §REF§(Simonis 2010, 40)§REF§" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 700, "polity_year_to": 1077, "comment": null, "description": "\"...the Empire of Ghana, an influential confederation that consolidated power within large areas to the north and west of the Inland Niger Delta sometime after 500 C.E..\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§<br>\"the only area in which we can convincingly assert that a kingdom existed in the period under review was at the western edge of the Sudan, where the kingdom of Ghana was certainly in existence by +700 and could have been emerging for up to a thousand years.\"§REF§(Posnansky 1981, 723, 731)§REF§<br>\"Ecology, not conquest, brought about the fall of Ghana. The herds were too big, there were too many people.\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 277)§REF§<br>\"In former times the people of this country professed paganism until the year 469/1076-1077 when Yahya b. Abu Bakr the amir of Masufa made his appearance.\"§REF§(Al-Zuhri c1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25)§REF§<br>\"With the decline of the Almoravids in the twelfth century, Ghana became the richest kingdom in the Sudan, but in the thirteenth century its former tributaries freed themselves from central control, and the kingdom disintegrated. The decline of Ghana gave rise to a number of small states among Soninke-speaking peoples.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§<br>\"L'empire du Ghana fut détruit par les Almoravides, qui s'emparerent de sa capitale, Ghana, en 1076-1077, mais la ville ne fut abandonnee qu'apres la conquete par le Mandingue Soundiata, vers 1240\" <i>The Ghana Empire was destroyed by the Almoravids, who seized the capital, Ghana, 1076-1077, but the city was not abandoned after the conquest by the Mandingo Sundiata, until 1240</i>§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/autre-region/empire_du_Ghana/121313\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/autre-region/empire_du_Ghana/121313</a>)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -500, "polity_year_to": -300, "comment": null, "description": " The start of this period is marked by the founding of Monte Albán at the centre of the three valleys.<br>Start: 500 BCE<br>\"Monte Alban, founded circa 500 BC at the nexus of the valley's three branches, was one of highland Mesoamerica’s earliest cities, and it remained the most populous and architecturally monumental settlement in the Southern Highlands for more than a millennium (Blanton, 1978)§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2017, 1) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2017. Settlement Patterns in the Albarradas Area of Highland Oaxaca, Mexico: Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interaction. Fieldiana Anthropology, 46(1):1-162. Publication 1572. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -300, "polity_year_to": -100, "comment": null, "description": " The Zapotec polity began to expand at the beginning of this phase, conquering the Cañada de Cuicatlán and other areas.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199§REF§§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2003). \"Militarism, resistance, and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Social Evolution & History 2: 25-70, p29§REF§" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -100, "polity_year_to": 200, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 200, "polity_year_to": 500, "comment": null, "description": " “Period IIIa in the Valley of Oaxaca saw the withdrawal of Monte Albán from distant provinces (e.g. Redmond, 1983) and the disintegration of its empire as new competitors arose on the fringes of its political territory.”§REF§Balkansky, A. K. (1998). \"Origin and collapse of complex societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the era from 1965 to the present.\" Journal of World Prehistory 12(4): 451-493, p474§REF§" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 500, "polity_year_to": 900, "comment": null, "description": " “With the decline of Monte Albán around A.D. 700, the Zapotec entered into their fourth developmental stage: a period of highly competitive and militaristic “city states” which lasted until the Spanish conquest of the 1520s.”§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376§REF§" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 900, "polity_year_to": 1520, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -6000, "polity_year_to": -2001, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1427, "polity_year_to": 1526, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 100, "polity_year_to": 649, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 650, "polity_year_to": 899, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1200, "polity_year_to": -801, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(David Carballo, pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni, 2019)§REF§ The following refers to a previous periodization. The dates assigned to this quasi-polity match the approx. ceramic chronologies of the Early and Middle Formative Periods. The earliest tribe/chiefdom scale ranked societies emerge in the NGA around c.1500 BCE, and these general patterns persist until more stratified and centralized polities (complex chiefdoms/ city states) emerge c.650 BCE.§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1996). \"The Basin of Mexico: Multimillenial Development toward Cultural Complexity.\" In <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, edited by Emily P. Benson and Beatriz de la Fuente. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 83-93.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Steponaitis, Vincas P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2): 320-363.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§" }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -400, "polity_year_to": -101, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(David Carballo, pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni, 2019)§REF§ The following refers to a previous periodization. The start date 650 BC for the MxFormL quasi-polity is the beginning of the Late Formative period (c.650-200 BC) in the Basin of Mexico (alternatively called \"First Intermediate Period 2\").§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2016). \"Teotihuacan.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological Research 24</i>:1-74.§REF§§REF§Cowgill, George L. (2015). <i>Ancient Teotihuacan: Early Urbanism in Central Mexico.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.7-11.§REF§§REF§Kolb, C. C. (1996). \"Analyses of Archaeological Ceramics From Classic Period Teotihuacan, Mexico, AD 150-750.\" In MRS Proceedings (Vol. 462, p. 247). Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The end date is fuzzy and problematic because it is unclear exactly when in the Terminal Formative period (c.200-1 BC; alternatively called \"First Intermediate Period 3\") the entire MxFormL quasi-polity was conquered by its aggressive neighbors Cuicuilco (<a href=\"https://seshatdatabank.info/browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Cui&action=edit&redlink=1\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: /browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Cui&action=edit&redlink=1 </a>) and Teotihuacan (<a href=\"https://seshatdatabank.info/browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Teo&action=edit&redlink=1\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: /browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Teo&action=edit&redlink=1 </a>). Since the MxFormL quasi-polity is made up of multiple, discrete, independent settlement clusters, the timing of their conquest by Cuicuilco and Teotihuacan was most likely different for different areas.§REF§Steponaitis, V. P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2), 320-363.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 98-105.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§§REF§Brumfiel, Elizabeth. (1976). \"Regional growth in the Eastern Valley of Mexico: A test of the “Population Pressure” hypothesis.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 234-249.§REF§ This quasi-polity ceased to exist during the subsequent Tzacualli ceramic phase (c.1 BCE - 100 CE) because the Plinian eruption of Popocatepetl led to the abandonment of most of the quasi-polity', while the rest of the quasi-polity was taken over by Teotihuacan and Cuicuilco.§REF§Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2006). \"Social and cultural consequences of a late Holocene eruption of Popocatépetl in central Mexico.\" <i>Quaternary International</i> 151.1: 19-28.§REF§§REF§Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. \"Mountain of sustenance, mountain of destruction: The prehispanic experience with Popocatépetl Volcano.\" Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 170.1 (2008): 111-120.§REF§§REF§Siebe, C. (2000). \"Age and archaeological implications of Xitle volcano, southwestern Basin of Mexico City.\" <i>Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research</i> 104, 45-64.§REF§ The date ranges for the eruption/abandonment are c. 100 BCE - 50 CE, and the start date for the Tzacualli ceramic transition is centered around 1 BCE, so I use the date of 1 BCE to designate both events." }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -800, "polity_year_to": -401, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(David Carballo, pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni, 2019)§REF§ The following refers to a previous periodization. The dates assigned to this quasi-polity match the approx. ceramic chronologies of the Early and Middle Formative Periods. The earliest tribe/chiefdom scale ranked societies emerge in the NGA around c.1500 BCE, and these general patterns persist until more stratified and centralized polities (complex chiefdoms/ city states) emerge c.650 BCE.§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1996). \"The Basin of Mexico: Multimillenial Development toward Cultural Complexity.\" In <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, edited by Emily P. Benson and Beatriz de la Fuente. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 83-93.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Steponaitis, Vincas P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2): 320-363.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -100, "polity_year_to": 99, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(David Carballo, pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni, 2019)§REF§ The following refers to a previous periodization. The start date 650 BC for the MxFormT quasi-polity is the beginning of the Late Formative period (c.650-200 BC) in the Basin of Mexico (alternatively called \"First Intermediate Period 2\").§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2016). \"Teotihuacan.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological Research 24</i>:1-74.§REF§§REF§Cowgill, George L. (2015). <i>Ancient Teotihuacan: Early Urbanism in Central Mexico.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.7-11.§REF§§REF§Kolb, C. C. (1996). \"Analyses of Archaeological Ceramics From Classic Period Teotihuacan, Mexico, AD 150-750.\" In MRS Proceedings (Vol. 462, p. 247). Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The end date is fuzzy and problematic because it is unclear exactly when in the Terminal Formative period (c.200-1 BC; alternatively called \"First Intermediate Period 3\") the entire MxFormT quasi-polity was conquered by its aggressive neighbors Cuicuilco (<a href=\"https://seshatdatabank.info/browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Cui&action=edit&redlink=1\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: /browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Cui&action=edit&redlink=1 </a>) and Teotihuacan (<a href=\"https://seshatdatabank.info/browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Teo&action=edit&redlink=1\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: /browser/index.php?title=Basin_of_Mexico-Teo&action=edit&redlink=1 </a>). Since the MxFormT quasi-polity is made up of multiple, discrete, independent settlement clusters, the timing of their conquest by Cuicuilco and Teotihuacan was most likely different for different areas.§REF§Steponaitis, V. P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2), 320-363.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 98-105.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§§REF§Brumfiel, Elizabeth. (1976). \"Regional growth in the Eastern Valley of Mexico: A test of the “Population Pressure” hypothesis.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 234-249.§REF§ This quasi-polity ceased to exist during the subsequent Tzacualli ceramic phase (c.1 BCE - 100 CE) because the Plinian eruption of Popocatepetl led to the abandonment of most of the quasi-polity', while the rest of the quasi-polity was taken over by Teotihuacan and Cuicuilco.§REF§Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2006). \"Social and cultural consequences of a late Holocene eruption of Popocatépetl in central Mexico.\" <i>Quaternary International</i> 151.1: 19-28.§REF§§REF§Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. \"Mountain of sustenance, mountain of destruction: The prehispanic experience with Popocatépetl Volcano.\" Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 170.1 (2008): 111-120.§REF§§REF§Siebe, C. (2000). \"Age and archaeological implications of Xitle volcano, southwestern Basin of Mexico City.\" <i>Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research</i> 104, 45-64.§REF§ The date ranges for the eruption/abandonment are c. 100 BCE - 50 CE, and the start date for the Tzacualli ceramic transition is centered around 1 BCE, so I use the date of 1 BCE to designate both events." }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2000, "polity_year_to": -1201, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1200, "polity_year_to": 1426, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -700, "polity_year_to": -500, "comment": null, "description": " This phase is defined by the appearance of a new ceramic style (Rosario ceramics) in 700 BCE, and ends with the founding of the new settlement Monte Albán in the central region of the valley. The chiefdoms during this period are also more complex than in the preceding San José and Guadalupe phases.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p74§REF§" }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1150, "polity_year_to": -700, "comment": null, "description": " Both the San José and Guadalupe phases are characterised by ceramic complexes, which correspond to roughly 1150-850 BCE and 850-700 BCE respectively.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p12§REF§ The end of this phase is marked by the appearance of Rosario ceramic styles and more complex chiefdom organisation.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p74§REF§" }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1400, "polity_year_to": -1150, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). \"Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362.§REF§" }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 900, "polity_year_to": 1199, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1262, "polity_year_to": 1396, "comment": null, "description": "Icelanders began to pledge allegiance to the Norwegian crown in 1262ce: 'The thirteenth century was a period of escalating conflict (STURLUNGAÖLD) chieftains attempted to exert control beyond their local regions. The system of autonomous chieftains ended after 1262 A.D. when Iceland came under Norwegian rule.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ The kingdom of Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark in 1380ce: 'To a large extent, Iceland was ruled separately from Norway. It had its own law code, and the Althing continued to be held at Thingvellir, though mainly as a court of justice. Most of the royal officials who succeeded the chieftains were Icelanders. In 1380 the Norwegian monarchy entered into a union with the Danish crown, but that change did not affect Iceland’s status within the realm as a personal skattland (“tax land”) of the crown.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10093\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10093</a>§REF§ The focus of Norwegian rule shifted during this time before the union with Denmark: 'The realm of the king of Norway, when Iceland became a part of it, was centred on the North Atlantic. It stretched from the west coast of Greenland to the Barents Sea in the north, and south to Göteborg and the Orkneys [...]. Purely in terms of distance, Iceland was not far from the middle of this domain; it was within a week's travel of the main centres, the royal court at Bergen and the archiepiscoal sea at Trondheim. Just over two centuries later, the capital of the state was the city of Copenhagen on the Sound, and Iceland was at the westernmost point of the kingdom. It was King Haakon (1299-1319), son of Magnus, who turned the thrust of the state to the south and east. He moved his court from Bergen to Oslo, and arranged a marriage between his daughter Ingeborg and the brother of the Swedish king, when she was one year old. Their son, Magnus, inherited the thrones of Sweden and Norway in 1319, at the age of three. Norway as an autonomous kingdom had thus practically ceased to exist. The mid-14th century also saw the Balck Death sweep through Scandinavia. The disease was especially virulent in Norway, where as many as two-third of the population may have died in successive epidemics. In the period 1376-80 the boy king Olaf, son of Hakon, inherited the crowns of Denmark and Norway. Thus Iceland became subject to the Danish throne, a relationship that was not finally broken off until 1944. Olaf was also of the Swedish royal house (which ruled Finland too). It is easy to imagne the idea of a unified Nordic realm forming in the mind of Queen Margarethe, mother of the child king. But in 1387 Olaf suddenly died, aged 17. But Margarethe did not give up her plans. She contrived to have herself elected regent in all the Nordic kingdoms, and to have her six-year-old foster-son nominaated heir to all the thrones. In 1397 an attempt was made in the Swesih city of Karlmar to establish a permanent union of the states.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 22p§REF§" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 200, "polity_year_to": 499, "comment": null, "description": " Bauer refers to 200-600 CE as the Qotakalli period §REF§(Bauer 2004, 47)§REF§ and Covey states that Qotakalli appeared c.400 CE §REF§(Covey 2006, 59)§REF§Coded to 500 CE, chosen as an arbitrary date to coincide with the next polity, coded as 'Qotakalli' using an earlier chronology from 1999, established by Bauer on the basis of ceramic analyses:<br>Ceramic sequence for Cuzco region gives a date range from 500 CE to 800 CE with the core period 550-650 CE. §REF§(Bauer 1999, 144)§REF§<br>In the Lucre Basin, the Chanapata phase seems to start earlier, or the distinction with the previous quasi-polity has not been made: \"The earliest stratum encountered in recent excavations at the Cuzco Valley site of Choquepukio has revealed a Chanapata occupation dating from approximately 350 BC to AD 600.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006b, 88)§REF§<br>Brian Bauer chronology: §REF§(Bauer 2004, x)§REF§<br>Late Formative<br>500 BCE - 200 CE<br>Chanapata ceramic style, the first pre-Inca ceramic style of the Cuzco region<br>\"during this period a clear settlement hierarchy developed.\"§REF§(Bauer 2004, 44)§REF§<br>(Note by RA: Brian Bauer refers to the period between AD 200 and AD 600 as the Qotakalli Period, and to him, the Chanapata ceramic style was used in what we have coded as the Wimpillay polity (1-200 CE). §REF§(Bauer 2004, x)§REF§Gordon McEwan refers to the period before the arrival of the Wari (c. 600 CE) as Chanapata. §REF§(McEwan 2006b, 88)§REF§ )<br>Bauer's ceramic chronology from 1999: §REF§(Bauer 1999, 144)§REF§<br>\"400 BCE - 370 CE. Early Intermediate Period begins. Chavín cult disappears, and new regional traditions assert themselves. Nazca and Moche cultures flourish. The Cuzco Valley is occupied by the Chanapata culture.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006a, 203)§REF§" }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 500, "polity_year_to": 649, "comment": null, "description": " {400 CE; 500 CE}-650 CE<br>Start date<br>End of the Formative Period c500 CE. \"The Qotakalli chiefdom may have covered an area roughly 50 km (31 mi) in diameter\" §REF§(Quilter 2013, 196)§REF§<br>Ceramic sequence for Cuzco region gives a date range from 500 CE to 800 CE with the core period 550-650 CE. §REF§(Bauer 1999, 144)§REF§<br>\"Qotakalli pottery appears to have been produced in the Cusco Basin by about AD 400\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 59)§REF§<br>End date<br>Fig. 25 shows spread of radiocarbon dates from \"Wari and Wari related contexts\" in Cuzco region. The earliest spread (one context) calibrated with 68.2% probability is from 540-690 CE. The earliest main cluster (5 contexts) of spreads at 68.2% probability agree on a period 650-780 CE. §REF§(Bauer 2003, 16)§REF§" }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1000, "polity_year_to": 1250, "comment": null, "description": "Killke state formation begun around 1000 CE. 1000-1200 period had small, competing polities. §REF§(Covey 2003, 352)§REF§<br>\"After AD 1000, the population of the Cusco Basin and Sacred Valley grew substantially, and the site of Cusco itself increased in size and population density.\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 89)§REF§<br>The 1000-1250 CE period is before the Inca expansion into the Sacred Valley, which occurred during a time of drought dated 1250-1310 CE. §REF§(Covey 2006, 117)§REF§ Administrative and temple buildings at Qhapaqkancha, Markasunay and Pukara Pantillijlla probably developed during the Inca expansion into the Sacred Valley (1250-1310 CE). §REF§(Covey 2006, 129, 134)§REF§<br>Another polity present in the Cuzco Valley during the Late Intermediate Period was the Pinagua polity based at Choquepukio in the Lucre Basin: \"A few centuries later, circa AD 1300, a second building phase was initiated at Choquepukio, resulting in the construction of additional niched halls.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006b, 95)§REF§" }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1250, "polity_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "Inca expansion into the Sacred Valley occurred during a time of drought dated 1250-1310 CE. §REF§(Covey 2006a, 117)§REF§ Administrative and temple buildings at Qhapaqkancha, Markasunay and Pukara Pantillijlla probably developed during the Inca expansion into the Sacred Valley (1250-1310 CE). §REF§(Covey 2006a, 129, 134)§REF§<br>\"A few centuries later, circa AD 1300, a second building phase was initiated at Choquepukio, resulting in the construction of additional niched halls.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006b, 95)§REF§<br>\"Carbon dates suggest that the transition from the pre-Inca to Inca eras at Chokepuquio seems to have occurred 1400 - 30, which is in keeping with the idea of a late incorporation of the Lucre region.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 83)§REF§\"A particularly intriguing set of dates was taken recently from deposits at the site of Chokepuquio (McEwan and Gibaja O. n.d.). At this site, which was home to a major Inca foe in the Lucre basin late in the era of Inca state formation, a major burning event separated the pre-Inca from the imperial era. The reported suite of dates puts that event between 1400 and 1430 (with a 95 percent degree of confidence). If we accept the proposition that the conflagration occurred after the town fell to Inca forces, then we can infer that the Incas took control sometime early in the fifteenth century, not close to mid-century as the historical readings put it. \" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 64)§REF§<br>\"Site surveys in the region lead Brian Bauer to conclude that the spread of Killke reflects early, gradual expansion of Inca hegemony that was nondisruptive. Thus, Killke Cuzco was apparently a young señorio, likely confederated with Chokepukio by about AD 1200.\" §REF§(Moseley 2001, 248)§REF§" }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -500, "polity_year_to": 200, "comment": null, "description": "<br>\"I currently interpret the site of Wimpillay to be the center of a valley-wide chiefdom during the Late Formative phase.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 44)§REF§<br>Early Formative<br>Starts c2200 BCE with beginnings of ceramic production; Ends 1500 BCE with the establishment of large permanent villages§REF§(Bauer 2004, 39)§REF§<br>Middle Formative<br>Starts 1500 BCE with the development of Marcavalle ceramics and the first villages; Ends 500 BCE §REF§(Bauer 2004, 39)§REF§<br>represented by small independent villages.§REF§(Bauer 2004, 44)§REF§<br>Late Formative<br>500 BCE - 200 CE<br>Chanapata ceramic style, the first pre-Inca ceramic style of the Cuzco region<br>\"during this period a clear settlement hierarchy developed.\"§REF§(Bauer 2004, 44)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1375, "polity_year_to": 1532, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Pachakutiq myth cannot explain the available evidence adequately, and A.D. 1438 should not be used as a starting date for the Inka polity and its history.\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 173)§REF§<br>1572 CE Spanish. execute last direct heir. §REF§(Bauer 2004, 3)§REF§<br>\"The dating of the Killke era from ad 1000 until about 1400 is still based on relatively few radiocarbon dates, but they are consistent with one another (Dwyer 1971; Kendall 1985; Bauer 1992; Adamska and Michecsynski 1996). Carbon dates taken from Pumamarca architecture end in the fourteenth century (Hollowell 1987), while the Inca-style rectangular and ceremonial constructions at Pukara Pantillijlla are also earlier than we would expect from the historical chronology (Covey 2006b: 163). In light of the early dates, Bauer (1992: 47) has ventured that some structures usually thought to belong to the imperial era were actually raised during the Killke period. As noted in chapter 2 (section entitled “Time frames”), carbon dates suggest that the transition from the pre-Inca to Inca eras at Chokepuquio seems to have occurred 1400 - 30, which is in keeping with the idea of a late incorporation of the Lucre region.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 83)§REF§<span style=\"color:blue\">AD: The code starting at 1375 CE reflects a possible beginning in the late 14th century. </span> Covey: \"Seems reasonable, especially given the uncertainty regarding when the Inca state qualifies as an “empire.” 1400 might be closer to the mark, but we have a lot of work left to date Inca expansion in Cuzco and to correlate that chronology with radiocarbon chronologies for the Inca presence beyond the Cuzco region.\" §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 650, "polity_year_to": 999, "comment": null, "description": " <i>[{550 CE; 600 CE; 650 CE; 700 CE}-{1000 CE; 1100 CE}] ... cannot yet be machine read.</i><br>Duration in the NGA: 600 - {900; 1000} CE.\"While some ceramic evidence exists in Cuzco for Wari activity during Epoch 1A (ca. A.D. 500 - 600), extensive Wari presence did not occur until Epoch 1B (ca. A.D. 600 - 700). At this time, the Wari began building Pikillacta, occupying it during its construction. [...] During Epoch 1B until sometime in Epoch 2 (ca. A.D. 700 - 800), Pikillacta continued to be built and occupied. [...] Sometime during Epoch 2, but perhaps somewhat later, Wari activity at Pikillacta began to decrease. [...] Pikillacta was finally abandoned, although Wari activity in the Cuzco region may have persisted.\" §REF§(Glowacki in McEwan 2005, 123)§REF§.<br>According to Alan Covey: \"The dates that McEwan and Glowacki offer for early Wari colonization (before AD 600) are based on their interpretation of relative ceramic chronologies, and the presumably earlier Huaro area colonization has not been dated absolutely. Maeve Skidmore completed a dissertation at SMU in 2014 with excavations at a Wari colony site, and she concluded that there was an intensification of Wari state relationships with their own colonists after AD 800. That would be my sense of the general chronology right now: an early Wari colonization around AD 600, an intensification of state efforts to extend administrative control over Wari and local populations around AD 800, and a failure of that intensification process by AD 1000.\" §REF§(Alan Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>550 CE<br>Expansion \"sometime after AD 550\" continued until \"at least AD 900\" then sudden collapse.§REF§(Bauer 2004, 55)§REF§<br>Expansion occurred during an environmental crisis involving droughts and floods in the mid sixth century.§REF§(Lumbreras in Bergh 2012, 2)§REF§<br>Start date possibly 540 CE. §REF§(McEwan ed. 2005, 1)§REF§<br>600 CE<br>\"Flourished in the central Andean highlands and some coastal regions from around AD 600 to AD 900.\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 56)§REF§<br>600-1000 CE. Ayacucho valley. §REF§(Covey, Bauer, Bélisle, Tsesmeli 2013, 538-552)§REF§<br>700 CE<br>Katherine Schreiber's interpretation of Wari as an empire: \"By \"empire\" she means a political state that, starting in the mid-eighth century AD, rapidly expanded beyond its regional borders in Ayacucho to take control of a very large territory that encompassed much of highland and coastal Peru as well as many groups of people of diverse ethnicities, cultures, languages and social organization.\" §REF§(Jennings and Bergh in Bergh 2012, 23)§REF§<br>Radiocarbon dates<br>Fig. 25 shows spread of radiocarbon dates from \"Wari and Wari related contexts\" in Cuzco region. The earliest spread (one context) calibrated with 68.2% probability is from 540-690 CE. The earliest main cluster (5 contexts) of spreads at 68.2% probability agree on a period 650-780 CE.<br>Fig. 25 shows the latest radiocarbon spread at 68.2% probability (one context) is 990-1100 CE, whilst the last main cluster at 68.2% probability (4 contexts) is roughly 890-1000 CE. §REF§(Bauer 2003, 16)§REF§<br>Wari periodization, according to Menzel (summary quoted from Giersz and Makowski 2014):<br>\"In the 1960s, Dorothy Menzel undertook a monumental and influential comparative study of pieces found in collections and the relatively scant ceramic sherds derived from test pits in Wari sites, some of which already had the first radiocarbon dates. The relative chronology of the Middle Horizon, the outcome of this study, represents the main starting point in any discus- sion of Wari and its time, and is still the conceptual framework for interpretation. In accordance with the stylistic seriation methodology outlined by Rowe, Menzel subdivided the period that extends from the rise of the Wari styles in the midst of local Early Intermediate Period pottery (Huarpa) into four epochs—which was marked by the influence of the coastal Nasca style (phases 8-9)—to the final decline of the forms and designs derived from this Ayacuchano tradition at the hands of others related with local traditions (i.e. Late Intermediate Tradition: Chanka pottery). These last two epochs were discarded after it was shown that they were in fact posterior to the abandonment of the presumed capitals in Ayacucho. With these modifications, Menzel argues that the history of the Wari culture is divided into two epochs and four phases, followed by a third phase, that of the decline:<br>Epoch 1, Phase A (Menzel’s original chronology: A.D. 550-600; new estimates: A.D. 600-700). The complex Altiplano iconography and its well-known front and profile personages from the Tiwanaku reliefs appear on Ayacucho pottery within the context of two new locally produced styles, Chakipampa—strongly related with the coastal tradition (Nasca 9)—and Ocros, as well as a third style with ample local antecedents—Huarpa (Figs. 11, 12 and 13). The Robles Moqo and Conchopata styles appear. More complex designs are found in the urns and jars from Conchopata, which have no Huarpa or Nazca precedent.<br>Epoch 1, Phase B (Menzel’s original chronology: A.D. 600-650; new estimates: A.D. 700-850). The new styles spread to the South Coast (Pacheco in Nazca, Cerro del Oro) and influence the local output of the Central Coast, for instance the Nievería style in the Rímac Valley.<br>Epoch 2 (new estimates: A.D. 850-1000), Phase A (Menzel’s original chrono- logy: A.D. 650-700). Wari consolidates its presence on the coast. New styles that synthesise and simplify the designs from previous phases spread from Arequipa to Piura: Viñaque, Atarco, Pachacamac and Ica-Pachacamac. It should however be emphasised that their decoration comprises religious motifs that in the previous epoch remained restricted to the Ayacucho’s ceremonial styles (Conchopata, Robles Moqo). The Wari Empire expanded rapidly in Epoch 2, Phase B (Menzel’s original chronology: A.D. 700-775) and reached its maximum extent. The Viñaque style reached such distant areas as Cajamarca to the North and Chuquibamba to the South. The trend towards schematisation and simplification were likewise heightened in the development of the styles, thus anticipating the decline of Wari (Figs. 14 and 15). The Empire evidently had declined by the end of Epoch 2 and most centres were abandoned.<br>Epochs 3 and 4 (new estimates: A.D. 1000-1050). Epoch 3 (Menzel’s original chronology: A.D. 775-850) was defined from the stylistic transformations seen in the mould-stamped pottery from the Central-North Coast: local forms and designs supposedly re-emerged, but several Wari designs and conventions endured. After Epoch 3, some Wari-style survivals would have characterised Epoch 4 (Menzel’s original chronology: A.D. 850-1000), which is superimposed with the subsequent Late Intermediate Period (Fig. 16).<br>Thanks to the first C14 dates, which were still reduced, Menzel proposed dating the Middle Horizon 1 and 2 to A.D. 550-775, and Epoch 3, that of the decline, to A.D. 775-850. We now have several long series of dates well- located in stratigraphic contexts, particularly from Conchopata, Pikillacta, Moquegua, Cajamarca, and also from Huari itself. The dates related with the construction of planned public architecture outside Ayacucho in the high- lands fall chronologically in A.D. 600-700 (cal.), and are visibly contemporary with the capital itself. The decline of Huari, the capital, took place instead in the eleventh century AD. Even so in some parts of Ayacucho like Azángaro, the Wari buildings remained in use up to the thirteenth century A.D. (cal.). The manufacture of pottery in the local, Middle Horizon “Huamanga” style also continued. A similar situation is observed in Cuzco and in Apurímac.8 The dated contexts evince that although Menzel correctly apprehended the broad outlines of some general trends in the development of ceramic styles, these do not let themselves be exclusively ascribed to short phases. Most of these styles endured for two or three centuries and none of them became the official imperial style, comparable in terms of their reception and prestige to the Imperial Inca style.\" §REF§(Milosz and Makowski 2014, 285)§REF§" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1734, "polity_year_to": 1883, "comment": null, "description": " The Orokaiva population relied on a decentralised political system based on clans and relatively autonomous local groups: 'Every Orokaiva is recruited by birth into the clan of his or her father. All members of a clan claim, but cannot necessarily trace, common descent from a usually eponymous ancestor. Each clan is subdivided into named subgroups or lineages that trace their origin to a named ancestor.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ In the late 19th century, much of New Guinea was brought under British imperial control: 'In response to Australian pressure, the British government annexed Papua in 1888. Gold was discovered shortly thereafter, resulting in a major movement of prospectors and miners to what was then the Northern District. Relations with the Papuans were bad from the start, and there were numerous killings on both sides. The Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory by the passing of the Papua Act of 1905 by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The new administration adopted a policy of peaceful penetration, and many measures of social and economic national development were introduced. Local control was in the hands of village constables, paid servants of the Crown. Chosen by European officers, they were intermediaries between the government and the people.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ 'Capt. John Moresby of Great Britain surveyed the southeastern coast in the 1870s, and by the 1880s European planters had moved onto New Britain and New Ireland. By 1884 the German New Guinea Company was administering the northeastern quadrant, and a British protectorate was declared over the southeastern quadrant. Despite early gold finds in British New Guinea (which from 1906 was administered by Australia as the colony of Papua), it was in German New Guinea, administered by the German imperial government after 1899, that most early economic activity took place. Plantations were widely established in the New Guinea islands and around Madang, and labourers were transported from the Sepik River region, the Markham valley, and Buka Island. Australian forces displaced the German authorities on New Guinea early in World War I, and the arrangement was formalized in 1921, when Australian control of the northeastern quadrant of the island was mandated by the League of Nations.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1884, "polity_year_to": 1942, "comment": null, "description": " In the late 19th century, much of New Guinea was brought under British imperial control: 'In response to Australian pressure, the British government annexed Papua in 1888. Gold was discovered shortly thereafter, resulting in a major movement of prospectors and miners to what was then the Northern District. Relations with the Papuans were bad from the start, and there were numerous killings on both sides. The Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory by the passing of the Papua Act of 1905 by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The new administration adopted a policy of peaceful penetration, and many measures of social and economic national development were introduced. Local control was in the hands of village constables, paid servants of the Crown. Chosen by European officers, they were intermediaries between the government and the people.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ 'Capt. John Moresby of Great Britain surveyed the southeastern coast in the 1870s, and by the 1880s European planters had moved onto New Britain and New Ireland. By 1884 the German New Guinea Company was administering the northeastern quadrant, and a British protectorate was declared over the southeastern quadrant. Despite early gold finds in British New Guinea (which from 1906 was administered by Australia as the colony of Papua), it was in German New Guinea, administered by the German imperial government after 1899, that most early economic activity took place. Plantations were widely established in the New Guinea islands and around Madang, and labourers were transported from the Sepik River region, the Markham valley, and Buka Island. Australian forces displaced the German authorities on New Guinea early in World War I, and the arrangement was formalized in 1921, when Australian control of the northeastern quadrant of the island was mandated by the League of Nations. This territory remained administratively separate from Papua, where the protective paternalist policies of Sir Hubert Murray (lieutenant governor of Papua, 1908-40) did little to encourage colonial investment. The discovery in the 1920s of massive gold deposits in eastern New Guinea at the Bulolo River (a tributary of the Markham River) and Edie Creek, near Wau, led to a rush of activity that greatly increased the economic and social impact on the mandated territory compared with those in Papua to the south. In the early 1930s an even greater discovery was made-contact with nearly one million people previously unknown to Europeans who were living in the Highlands basins of the Australian mandate.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History</a>§REF§ In the 1940s, the island was invaded by Japanese troops: 'During World War II the Japanese army invaded northern New Guinea in early 1942 and took the territorial headquarters in Rabaul. The Japanese were defeated by the Allies (primarily Australian troops) in the Battle of Milne Bay (August-September 1942) in eastern Papua but advanced along the rugged Kokoda Trail almost to the Papuan headquarters at Port Moresby before being pushed back over the mountains, again by Australian troops. The Allied victory in the Battle of the Coral Sea, southwest of the Solomon Islands, saved Port Moresby from a planned Japanese seaborne invasion. U.S. forces then moved quickly north and west across the island chain toward Borneo and beyond. Meanwhile, Australian troops continued a costly war on Bougainville Island and the New Guinea mainland until the Japanese surrender in August 1945.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -7500, "polity_year_to": -5500, "comment": null, "description": " 7500-5500 BCE: Mehrgarh I. The beginning of Mehrgarh I is based on newer dates which suggest that settlement and food production began well before 7000 BCE as originally thought. §REF§Jarrige, J.-F. (1991) Mehrgarh: its place in the development of ancient cultures in Pakisan. In, Jansen, M., et al (eds.) Forgotten cities on the Indus: early civilization in Pakistan from the 8th-2nd millennium BC.p. 142§REF§ Earliest occupation at Mehrgarh was identified in the so-called area MR 3 (7 m of stratified deposits). These levels seem to not yield ceramic materials; however, fired ceramic figurines and asphalt-covered baskets are found. §REF§Jarrige et al. (eds.), Mehrgarh: Field Reports, 57; Jarrige et al., ‘Mehrgarh Neolithic: the updated sequence’, 131, fig. 2; Jarrige et al., Mehrgarh: Neolithic Period; Jarrige, ‘Mehrgarh Neolithic: new excavations’; Jarrige, ‘Human figurines’; also Shaffer, ‘Indus valley’, vol. I, 454; G.L. Possehl, Indus Age: The Beginnings (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 464.§REF§" }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -5500, "polity_year_to": -4000, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -4000, "polity_year_to": -3200, "comment": null, "description": " 4000-3500 BCE: Mehrgar III (Kili Gul Muhammad periods II and III; Togau phase?) Fragments of metal (copper) artefacts; Local copper production, as well as crucible fragments? Beginning of a Chalcolithic period at the site? §REF§Jarrige, J.-F. (1991) Mehrgarh: its place in the development of ancient cultures in Pakisan. In, Jansen, M., et al (eds.) Forgotten cities on the Indus: early civilization in Pakistan from the 8th-2nd millennium BC.p. 142§REF§ Earliest occupation at Mehrgarh was identified in the so-called area MR 3 (7 m of stratified deposits). These levels seem to not yield ceramic materials; however, fired ceramic figurines and asphalt-covered baskets are found. §REF§Jarrige et al. (eds.), Mehrgarh: Field Reports, 57; Jarrige et al., ‘Mehrgarh Neolithic: the updated sequence’, 131, fig. 2; Jarrige et al., Mehrgarh: Neolithic Period; Jarrige, ‘Mehrgarh Neolithic: new excavations’; Jarrige, ‘Human figurines’; also Shaffer, ‘Indus valley’, vol. I, 454; G.L. Possehl, Indus Age: The Beginnings (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 464.§REF§ Mehrgarh I seems to be contemporaneous with the earliest pre-pottery levels at the site of Kili Gul Muhammad (KGM), Quetta valley, Bolan Pass, Balochistan. The latter site, along with the excavation at Damb Sadaat, currently defines the archaeological sequence of the Quetta Valley. §REF§Shaffer, ‘Indus valley’, vol. I, 453; Jarrige et al., ‘Mehrgarh Neolithic: the updated sequence’, 64§REF§ Kili Gul Mohammad III (Site Q24): (1) KGM III was contemporaneous with Anjira II and Mehrgarh Period III (Fairservis 1956: 330-332). §REF§Petrie C., Khan F., Knox R, Thomas K. & Morris J., 2010§REF§. Early village life in the north-western borderlands, in Sheri Khan Tarakai. page 19); (2) Kili Ghul Mohammad IV includes the irregular clay and charcoal layers of Phase 3, pottery of Kechi Beg type, exclusive of the polychrome and red-paint wares. Kili Ghul Mohammad III includes Phases 5-13, Section I, and pottery is Kili Ghul Mohammad Black-on-Red slip, with wheelmade wares predominating. (Fairservis, 1956. Quetta Valley); (3) Kili Ghul Mohammad IV and Damb Sadaat I correlate “on the basis of the presence of the Kechi Beg Wares: Kechi Beg White-on-Dark Slip, Kechi Beg Black-on-Buff slip, SPezand Black-and-Red Rim, Sultan Purple, Khojak Parallel Striated and the plainwares such as Nazim Hard-Clay Temper, Adam Sandy and others. Nevertheless, the absence of Kechi Beg Polychrome and Kechi Beg Red Pain, plus the general configuration of all the wates present in both assemblages, indicates that KIli Ghul Mohammad IV is probabily somewhat earlier than Damb Sadaat I.” (Fairservis, 1956. Quetta Valley). Other relevant Sites (De Cardi 1983, Archaeological Surveys in Baluchistan): Baleli, Pishin. The site known as Tor-Ghundai (Stein A. 1929. An archaeological tour in Waziristan, p.89) had been damaged by army lorries but a small sample of sherds confirmed Stein’s ascription of occupation in both chalcolithic and historical times. A number of chert flakes were noted and other finds included part of a shell bangle and a fragment of copper. In addition to KGM and basket-marked wares the sample included Togau A animal frizzes and one unusual sherd with an almost white surface decorated with reversed hook/horn frieze in brown. A comparable oddity was noted at Saiyed Maurez and Togau hooks occurred on a cream slip at Zari in the Surab valley." }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -180, "polity_year_to": -10, "comment": null, "description": " An independent offshoot of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, eventually conquered by nomads.<br>\"O. Bopearachchi, who has produced what probably remains the most reliable Bactrian chronology (see Table I) ... suggests two kings who may have ruled around 185 B.C.E., Demetrius I and Agathocles, as potential founders. Reluctantly, he dismisses the important Menander as too late for this date.\"§REF§(Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510.§REF§ However, Jakobsson (2009) believes \"the exact date 186/5 B.C.E. may not be so important, and that a later king, such as Menander, may well have been instrumental in the creation of the era.\"§REF§(Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510.§REF§<br>The expansion of the Greco-Bactrians into northern India from 180 BCE established the Indo-Greek Kingdom, which was a number of various dynastic polities traditionally associated with a number of regional capitals. These dynastic polities were ruled by more than 30 kings, often in conflict with each other. The Greco-Bactrians were originally a Greek colony under the Seleucid Syrian Kingdom of Selecus I. At the beginning of 250 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian state became independent and occupied the former Persian provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana. The expansion of the Greco-Bactrians led to the political dominance of a portion of India by the Greek invaders. Successive nomadic invasions by Scythians and other nomads isolated the Indo-Greeks from the wider Hellenic world after 145 BCE. By the beginning of the first century CE, the Greco-Bactrian state was extinguished as an independent entity. However, the Greek alphabet survived until the Islamic conquest as the script of the Bactrian language, and the conversion of a Indo-Greek King to Buddhism became a part of the zeitgeist of the Indian collective historical memory. §REF§Fino, Elisabetta Valtz, ed. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> Buy this book, 2012. pp. 42-52, 152§REF§" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1800, "polity_year_to": -1300, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3200, "polity_year_to": -2500, "comment": null, "description": " Including a transitional phase between the Early and the Mature Harappan§REF§McIntosh, J. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i> pp. 392-393. Santa-Barbara: ABC-Clio.§REF§" }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1300, "polity_year_to": -500, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 854, "polity_year_to": 1193, "comment": null, "description": " 854-1352 CE §REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sindh, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 184-206§REF§ §REF§Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh, Karachi, 2003, pp.19-71§REF§" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1335, "polity_year_to": 1521, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp. 1-2§REF§<br>1335-6 CE: The Samma rose in revolt and expanded the territory under their control. §REF§Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp. 1-2§REF§<br>1520-1521 CE: Their rule was brought to a halt after the region was conquered by Shah Beg Arghun, and later absorbed into the Mughal empire. §REF§Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp. 3-5§REF§ §REF§Asimov, M. S., and C. E. Bosworth. \"History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, The Age of Achievement, AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One, The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, Multiple History Series.\" (1998).pp. 300-302§REF§" }, { "id": 301, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2500, "polity_year_to": -2100, "comment": null, "description": " <i></i>" }, { "id": 302, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2100, "polity_year_to": -1800, "comment": null, "description": "<i></i>" } ] }