Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
GET /api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 519, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -716, "polity_year_to": -509, "comment": null, "description": "In terms of earliest habitation, there is archaeological evidence for the permanent occupation of Rome “centuries before 754 BCE” §REF§(Cornell 1995, 80)§REF§ perhaps from 1000 BCE. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 72)§REF§ In 2014, \"The daily Il Messagero quoted Patrizia Fortini, the archaeologist responsible for the Forum, as saying that a wall constructed well before the city's traditional founding date had been unearthed.\" Examination of ceramic material found beside the wall suggested a date \"between the 9th century and the beginning of the 8th century.\" §REF§(Hooper, J. Sunday 13 April 2014 17.38 BST. \"Archaeologists' findings may prove Rome a century older than thought\" The Guardian. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/13/archaelogists-find-rome-century-older-than-thought\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/13/archaelogists-find-rome-century-older-than-thought</a>)§REF§<br>First king of Rome may be Numa Pompilus (716-674 BCE) and a palace found on Palatine Hill dates to the late 8th century BCE. But was Numa Pompilus really the first king? Romulus, the official founder, was mythical but could be representative of an earlier date (753 BCE?).<br>The Hellenisation of Latium began in the 8th Century. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 87)§REF§ This timeframe (730-580 BCE) was an “orientalising period” marked by increasing social stratification shown by burial evidence of wealth, armour and chariots. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 81-82)§REF§<br>Not a peak date but a notable moment: the period of rule under Etruscan monarchs, beginning with Lucius Tarquinius Priscus from 616 BCE, saw a step-up in hierarchization of the Roman polity, and dates the moment when two groups known as patricians and plebians became more distinguishable. The first paving of the Roman Forum (meeting-place, market and civic centre) occurred around 625-575 BCE.§REF§(Southern 2012) Southern, Patricia. 2012. Ancient Rome: The Republic 753 BC - 30 BC. Amberely Publishing Limited. Gloucestershire.§REF§ The first senate building, the Curia Hostilia, existed from about 600 BCE.§REF§(Cornell 1995, 94)§REF§ Monumental architecture was present from the end of the 7th Century§REF§(Cornell 1995, 100)§REF§ and included a sanctuary constructed in 580 BCE.§REF§(Cornell 1995, 94)§REF§ Etruscan monarchs were responsible for large building projects such as the Cloaca Maxima (sewer system), the Circus Maximus and in 535 BCE the last king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (another Etruscan) built the Temple of Jupiter.§REF§(Cornell 1995, 118, 121)§REF§<br>Last king is Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 BCE). He was expelled from Rome by the aristocrats who set up Rome as a Republic. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 118, 120)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 395, "polity_year_to": 476, "comment": null, "description": "\"Odovacer's deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 marked the temporary end of direct Roman imperial rule in Italy and the beginning of a seventy-five-year experiment in non-Roman (or perhaps quasi-Roman) regional government. ... a series of barbarian leaders, many of whom hailed from a single dynasty (the Amals), oversaw the armies and administration of Italy, and at times even undertook imperial projects of their own (e.g. Theoderic's successful expansion into regions of Gaul and Western Illyricum ...).\"§REF§(Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 6) Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Western imperial dynasty 364-455 CE<br>Palace conspiracy toppled emperor in 455 CE.§REF§(Maenchen-Helfen 1973, 482) Maenchen-Helfen, Otto. 1973. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press.§REF§ This ended the \"Western imperial dynasty founded by Valentinian I in 364\".§REF§(Maenchen-Helfen 1973, 482) Maenchen-Helfen, Otto. 1973. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press.§REF§ 455-476 Italy and other parts of Western Empire ruled by legitimate Emperors, recognized by the Eastern Emperor in Constaniple, but no dynasties formed after the Theodosian line ended with Emperor Valentinian III<br>\"In 395 AD the Roman empire was divided into two parts with the Western Roman Empire with its capital at Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople.\"§REF§(Morgan 2012) Morgan, James F. 2012. The Roman Empire. Fall of the West; Survival of the East. AuthorHouse. Bloomington.§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 752, "polity_year_to": 904, "comment": null, "description": "There is no clear beginning or end to this polity. There are, however, major turning points in coherence of the polity and its self-governance. See general description below." }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1205, "polity_year_to": 1564, "comment": null, "description": "<i>1460 CE is an alternative start date for an earlier polity that could be 1205-1460 CE</i>: \"The ever-increasing interventions of the Avogaria in the years 1440-60 represent a true turning point in Venetian political history. The apex of the constituional system - the doge, the Provveditori di San Marco, the ducal councilors, the Savi del Consiglio - thus came to be subjected to a form of continuous supervision. In 1453, for example, the avogadori were able to block an order from the Doge to the Giudici di Petizion.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 54) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Part Two on The Imperial Expansion begins with the election of Pietro as the Doge of Venice in 1205 CE. Part Three on A Power in Europe ends in 1530 CE with the Coronation of Charles V by the Pope as Holy Roman Emperor.§REF§(Norwich 2003, vii-viii) John Julius Norwich. 2003. A History of Venice. Penguin Books. London.§REF§ In 1530 CE \"The peninsula was at peace - at least by Italian standards, and though the peace had been bought about by imperial-papal agency and all Italy still lay under the shadow of the Eagle's wing, Venice had managed to safeguard not only her political independence but even the integrity of her mainland dominians.\"§REF§(Norwich 2003, 449) John Julius Norwich. 2003. A History of Venice. Penguin Books. London.§REF§ Part Four is on Decline and Fall, last date 1797 CE.§REF§(Norwich 2003, viii) John Julius Norwich. 2003. A History of Venice. Penguin Books. London.§REF§<br>Chapter 2: \"Venice as a Great Power 1282-1481\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 46) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>\"New worries over social control are evident in the creation of the Esecutori control la Bestemmia (1537): the Council of Ten ordered this new magistrate to apply older laws that had been disregarded. The three Esecutori could proceed with a firm hand, torturing the accused and working in secret. The crime of blasphemy had, in fact, brought the divine wrath upon the city of St Mark: in order to regain God's benevolence ... it was necessary to prosecute them vigorously. A later law of the Ten in 1539, demonstrating the magistracy's success in uprooting blasphemy, decreed the extension of these norms to 'dens' and 'brothels' which, in addition to these offenses to God, gave rise to 'other enormous and detestable sins, along with gambling' with the consequent ruin of both people and their finances.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 64) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"In the years between 1580 and 1620, the processes of differentiation within the patriciate accelerated\".§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 71) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1565, "polity_year_to": 1797, "comment": null, "description": "Part Two on The Imperial Expansion begins with the election of Pietro as the Doge of Venice in 1205 CE. Part Three on A Power in Europe ends in 1530 CE with the Coronation of Charles V by the Pope as Holy Roman Emperor.§REF§(Norwich 2003, vii-viii) John Julius Norwich. 2003. A History of Venice. Penguin Books. London.§REF§ In 1530 CE \"The peninsula was at peace - at least by Italian standards, and though the peace had been bought about by imperial-papal agency and all Italy still lay under the shadow of the Eagle's wing, Venice had managed to safeguard not only her political independence but even the integrity of her mainland dominians.\"§REF§(Norwich 2003, 449) John Julius Norwich. 2003. A History of Venice. Penguin Books. London.§REF§ Part Four is on Decline and Fall, last date 1797 CE.§REF§(Norwich 2003, viii) John Julius Norwich. 2003. A History of Venice. Penguin Books. London.§REF§<br>\"Its republican constitution, which took shape in the late thirteenth century ... stood for five hundred years, until its fall to Napoleon on 12 May 1797.\"§REF§(Martin and Romano 2000, 1) John Martin. Dennis Romano. Reconsidering Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1336, "polity_year_to": 1467, "comment": null, "description": " 'While most scholars of Japanese history agree upon names used to identify various periods, the dates specified for each era can vary a great deal. Generally, the years 1185-1615 are designated Japan’s medieval era, identified as such due to the advent of rule by the warrior class, feudal system of land allocation and administration, and characteristic political unrest.' §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.3.§REF§ 'In some schemes for denoting periods, the Muromachi/Ashikaga era also includes subperiods: the Northern and Southern Courts and the Warring States. Other schemes treat these subperiods as historical eras of their own.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.3.§REF§ I am still weighing up the advantages/disadvantageous regarding the best way to divide up this period.<br>\"The Onin War marked the final collapse of even the pretense of central authority under the Kamakura bakufu, and ushered in the Japanese Warring States period (1467-1568). ...Without a dominant political actor, warlords all over Japan felt free to pursue their ambitions for greater power, or even to become the new dominant power.\" §REF§(Lorge 2011, 53-54)§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 538, "polity_year_to": 710, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1568, "polity_year_to": 1603, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 794, "polity_year_to": 1185, "comment": null, "description": " From the establishment of the capital at Heian-kyō (Kyoto) to the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate." }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -13600, "polity_year_to": -9200, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kobayashi 2004, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -9200, "polity_year_to": -5300, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kobayashi 2004, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -5300, "polity_year_to": -3500, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kobayashi 2004, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3500, "polity_year_to": -2500, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kobayashi 2004, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2500, "polity_year_to": -1200, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kobayashi 2004, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1200, "polity_year_to": -300, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1185, "polity_year_to": 1333, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 250, "polity_year_to": 537, "comment": null, "description": " The Kofun period is generally divided into three sub-periods: Early (ca. 250 - 400 CE), Middle (ca. 400 - 475 CE), and Late (ca. 475-710 CE).§REF§G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 9.§REF§§REF§K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 34.§REF§ The last part of the Kofun period is often designated by the historias as Asuka period (ca. 538 - 710 CE), which begins with the introduction of writing and of Buddhism into the country.§REF§Brooks, T, 2013. \"Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods.\"Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 8.§REF§§REF§Department of Asian Art. \"Asuka and Nara Periods (538-794)\". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-.\t<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/asna/hd_asna.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/asna/hd_asna.htm</a> (October 2002).§REF§<br>The Kofun period is subdivided into three sub-periods: Early (250-400 CE), Middle (400-475 CE), and Late (475-710 CE).§REF§G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 9.§REF§ This subdivision is based in change of tomb structures their assemblage, of settlement patterns and of ruling dynasties. In fact, the political centre shifts from Miwa, during the Early Kofun, to Kawachi (Middle Kofun), and finally to Asuka in the Late Kofun.§REF§G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10-11.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 710, "polity_year_to": 794, "comment": null, "description": " Beginning with the establishment of a permanent capital at Nara and ending with the capitals permanent relocation to Kyoto (Heian-kyō)." }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1467, "polity_year_to": 1568, "comment": null, "description": "This period starts at the Onin War 1467 CE: \"The Onin War ... ushered in a time of such unparalleled strife that future historians, puzzling over what to call a century and a half of war in Japan, threw up their hands in despair and settled for an analogy with the most warlike period in ancient Chinese history: the Age of Warring States. Translated into Japanese this became the Sengoku jidai or Sengoku Period ...\" §REF§(Turnbull 2002)§REF§<br>This period ends in 1568 CE at the beginning of the Unification Period. The Azuchi-Momoyama Period is distinct from the Sengoku because during this latter period central government was reestablished under a number of successive rulers.<br>However, the Age of Warring States or Sengoku Period traditionally can extend all the way to the seventeenth century, for example to 1615 CE: \"With the final defeat of his rivals at Osaka in 1615, the Tokugawa shoguns took over where the Ashikaga had left off, and the Age of Warring States gave way to the long Tokugawa Peace, out of which, two and a half centuries later, was born modern Japan.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2002)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1603, "polity_year_to": 1868, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Henshall, Kenneth (2012) A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [Third Edition]. p.53.§REF§ The period begins with Tokugawa Ieyasu’s victory in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 which marked the start of his rise to power. Tokugawa Ieyasu reinstated the Shogunate when the title was conferred on him in 1603 by Emperor Go-Yozei (the title had been unused since 1588). Although the Emperor remained as official head of state the Tokugawa Shoguns ruled Japan. The period ends with fall of the Shogunate and the restoration of the Emperor.§REF§Henshall, Kenneth (2012) A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [Third Edition]. p.54.§REF§ 'This period is sometimes dated from 1600 to reflect the significance of the decisive victory of the Tokugawa at the Battle of Sekigahara. Alternately, the Edo period is sometimes dated from 1603, the year that Tokugawa Ieyasu became shogun. Finally, some date the Edo period from 1616, the year of Ieyasu’s death. The Edo period ended in 1867 with the resignation of the last Tokugawa shogun, or according to others, in 1868 when the imperial restoration (Meiji Restoration) was proclaimed and the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo (“Eastern Capital”), replacing Kyoto as the official capital of Japan.' §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.12.§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -300, "polity_year_to": 250, "comment": null, "description": " {400 BCE; 300 BCE}-{200 CE; 300 CE}. According to most scholars this period spans from around 300 BCE to 300 CE §REF§Barnes,G.,1999. The rise of civilization in East Asia : the archaeology of China, Korea and Japan. New York: Thames and Hudson, 25.§REF§§REF§Hudson, M. J., 2007. Japanese beginnings.In: W. Tsutsui (ed.), <i>A Companion to Japanese History</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 13.§REF§. According to Mizoguchi (2013) this period spans from ca. 400 BCE to ca. 200 CE. §REF§K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,53§REF§. This period is divided into three sub-phases: Early Yayoi (400 BCE - 200 BCE; 300 - 100 BCE),Middle Yayoi (200 BCE - 1/50 CE; 100 BCE - 100 CE), and Late Yayoi (1/50 CE - 250 CE; 100 CE - 300 CE)." }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 950, "polity_year_to": 1212, "comment": null, "description": "\"First period\": until 1040 CE? when state divided into two separate Khanates.§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 144-145) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>Karakhanids were Buddhist but \"in the 950s the new rulers of Kashgar proclaimed their conversion to Islam.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>Rule of Masud Tamghach Khan ended 1170-1171 CE. He had successors. §REF§(Davidovich 1997, 140) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§ -- by this time under Seljuk authority.<br>Last Kara-Khanid ruler in Samarkand was Uthman who was removed by Khwarazms 1212 CE.§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 142) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>\"Muhammad b. Tekish did not initially intend to destroy the Karakhanid dynasty but merely sought allies in his struggle with the Kara Khitay. He considered it normal that the title of the Karakhanid Uthman should be higher than his own and laid no claim to any of the insignia of power in the Karakhanid state. Subsequently, however, the Karakhanids were obliged to acknowledge themselves as vassals of Muhammad b. Tekish ... In the third and final act, the Karakhanids gradually surrendered their domains - and, in many cases, their lives - to Muhammad b. Tekish.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 142) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 582, "polity_year_to": 630, "comment": null, "description": "552 CE: \"The end of the Juan-Juan Khaganate caused by the Turks (Göktürk). That is the beginning of the First Turkic Khaganate. The leaders of the Turks were Bumin and his younger brother, Istemi. The Turks were a member group of the Juan-Juan confederation, with their ancestral origins in the Altai Mountains.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 283) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§<br>\"Khagan Bumin founded the First Turkic (Göktürk) Khaganate that was de facto divided into an eastern and a western part. The ruler of the western part was Khagan Istemi.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 283) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§<br>c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§<br>627 or 630 CE: \"The Eastern Turkic Khaganate was brought under Chinese supremacy. It is dated to 630 by Györffy et al. and to 627 by Rogers.<br>\"To the west the situation was more stable, in spite of revolts, but after 630 the qaghanate disintegrated into several tribal confederations, with the On Oq in Central Asia and the Bulgars to the west.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 200)§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1100, "polity_year_to": 1220, "comment": null, "description": "This period begins in 1100 because that is the year that is approximately the year that a new dynasty (the Mahīdharapura, originally from the Khorat area) began under Jayavarman VI.<br>This period ends in 1220 CE (death of Jayavarman VII).<br>'Despite the control of the means of destruction by the overlord through his army and war elephants, a steady flow of goods from the countryside was essential. It is possible that the excessive demands of Jayavarman VII, and the spread of Hinayana Buddhism, which stresses the importance of the individual, undermined that relationship. Certainly, the building activity declined after the death of Jayavarman, and the central grip of provinces which formerly deferred to Angkor, slackened. But Angkor was not alone: the Chams to the east represented a potent force, as did the vibrant Thai state centred at Ayutthaya. When the latter invested and sacked Angkor, they removed a competitor, but maintained the traditions of kingship expressed in the rituals and esoteric language that a Loubere was to encounter at the court of King Narai.'§REF§(Higham 2012, p. 187)§REF§ 'The last Sanskrit inscription carved in Angkor commemorates the ascension of a minor king. Archaeologists consider this the end of the Classic Khmer period.'§REF§(National Geographic 2009)§REF§ 'Cambodian history is normally divided into the pre-Angkor (third century to 802 CE), Angkor (802-1432), and post-Angkor periods. The pre-Angkor period is mainly known from seventh-century inscriptions; Angkor epigraphy begins in the late ninth century. Thus there is a crucial gap in our sources during the critical transitional phase.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p.80)§REF§ 'Harsavarman III ascended the throne of Angkor in 1066. According to inscriptions from Mi Son, the Cham defeated him in a battle at Somesvara and devastated Sambhupura (Sambor), taking captives to serve in sanctuaries of Sri Isanabhadresvara in Mi Son. Harsavarman died in 1080 and received the posthumous name Sadasivapada. It seems that upon his death, a power struggle broke out. A ruler named Nripatindravarman may have ruled at Angkor until around 1113, whereas another ruler named Jayavarman VI is also mentioned in one unfinished inscription at Angkor, and in later inscriptions. No kinship relationships among any of these individuals can be ascertained.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, pp. 140-141)§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 802, "polity_year_to": 1100, "comment": null, "description": "• This period begins in 802 CE because an inscription (the Sdok Kak Thom) notes that a king (Jayavarman II) conducted a ceremony to free Cambodia from Java by declaring himself the universal monarch (chakravarti).<br>• This period ends in 1100 CE because that is approximately the year that a new dynasty (the Mahīdharapura, originally from the Khorat area) began under Jayavarman VI.<br>• 'The Angkor period is commonly understood to start in 802 CE with the proclamation of Jayavarman II as the chakravartin (universal-king) from a location in the Kulen mountains (Phnom Kulen), overlooking the vast alluvial plain where Angkor would begin to emerge in the following centuries (Figure 1). In doing so, Jayavarman confirmed himself as the great unifier; drawing Cambodia’s disparate polities together under the first ‘god king’ and establishing the Khmer state and the basis of its empire. Phnom Kulen was known as Mahendraparvata; ‘‘the hill of the great Indra’’. The extant history of Mahendraparvata is based on several inscriptions, the most well-known being an 11th century CE inscription (K.235) found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple, in eastern Thailand [4]. The inscription, dated to 1052 CE, outlines the lineage of a private family serving successive Khmer Kings for two and a half centuries, the first mentioned being Jayavarman II.' §REF§(Penny et al 2014, p. e84252)§REF§<br>• 'Shadowy as he appears through retrospective inscriptions, Jayavarman II still occupies a central position in the history of Angkor, becauase he was regarded for centuries after his death as he who founded the state, in a traditional date of 802 AD.'§REF§(Higham 2014b, p. 254)§REF§<br>• The end of the Angkor in approximately 1432 CE with the Siamese 'invasion' or 'sacking' of Angkor. \"Scholars usually place the Angkorean period of Cambodian history between 802 and 1431.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, pp. 35)§REF§<br>• 'There was a watershed, dated to the year 802, whereby a series of competing polities were joined into one enduring and powerful central state. This transition involved a process of contralization instituted by the overlord Jayavarman II (ruled 802 to 834). Jayavarman seems to have identified a means of unifying formerly competing overlords that was rooted first in military conquest, then by placing his followers in positions of authority. This had the effect of establishing a central rule through replacing independent polities by provinces. He also must have appreciated the importance of stressing the mystical properties of kingship by instituting the cult of the kamraten jagat ta raja, meaning \"the god who is king.\" Deification of the ruler, linked with vesting the rights to consecrate a new god-king in successive members of a given family, meant that the succession should be assured. Remarkably, the ensuing five centuries witnessed a considerable degree of legitimacy in the succession, being largely confined to members of the aristocratic lineage of Aninditapura.'§REF§(Hingham 2012, p. 185)§REF§<br>• 'Traditionally, the Angkorian period is said to have begun in 802, the year that Jayavarman II (r. 802-834) was crowned king. In a ritual evoking the mythology of ̋iva and celebrated in the Phnom Kulen (Kulen Mountains), north of Angkor, he became the cakravartin/cakkavatti (universal monarch) of the new kingdom.'§REF§(de Koninck and Macauley 2004, p. 149)§REF§<br>• 'The elephant was most clearly recorded during the Khmer empire dating from roughly 809 C.E. to 1431 C.E. During this time, the great temple of Angkor Wat and the Bayon were built.The frequent wars against theThais and Chams involved use of large “tuskers,” or superior male elephants, as well as elephants that carried men and goods. Elephants were important in moving the stones that built the temples, the logs that built the palaces, and the rice and other foods produced by the popu- lace to feed the royalty and the priests.The war elephants are wonderfully illustrated in the reliefs on the gallery walls of Angkor Wat. Similarly, many elephants are found among the carvings on the walls of Borobudur, the great Javanese Hindu-Buddhist temple dating to about 800 C.E.'§REF§(Griffin 2004, p. 486)§REF§<br>• 'In the history of Cambodia, the year 802 symbolizes the beginning of the Angkor era because the Sdok Kak Thom inscription specifies that Jayavarman II conducted a ceremony to free Cambodia from Java in that year.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 18)§REF§<br>• 'Cambodian history is normally divided into the pre-Angkor (third century to 802 CE), Angkor (802-1432), and post-Angkor periods. The pre-Angkor period is mainly known from seventh-century inscriptions; Angkor epigraphy begins in the late ninth century. Thus there is a crucial gap in our sources during the critical transitional phase.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p.80)§REF§<br>• 'The founder of Angkor, King Jayavarman II, is a shadowy figure and we still have no entirely satisfactory explanation as to why he moved his capital from the Mekong Valley to the drier region at the north-west tip of the Great Lake. He left no inscriptions that we know of. We know that he established his court in the region in 802 AD and that he reigned for almost 50 years before his death at Roluos, south-east of the main complex at Angkor.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 20)§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1220, "polity_year_to": 1432, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1432, "polity_year_to": 1594, "comment": null, "description": " Original 1327 CE start date (last Sanskrit inscription at Angkor) moved to 1432 CE (capital moves to Phnom Penh area). Original end date of 1594 CE (capital at Longvek/Lovek fell to Ayutthaya) This period ends in 1594, the year that the Angkorian capital at Longvek/Lovek fell to the Siamese. 'The last Sanskrit inscription carved in Angkor commemorates the ascension of a minor king. Archaeologists consider this the end of the Classic Khmer period.'§REF§(National Geographic 2009)§REF§ 'During the early decades of the fifteenth century, the Angkor Empire started to decline, and it fell to the Thai in 1431.'§REF§(Nyunt 2004, p. 180)§REF§ 'Ayutthaya reasserted itself as the dominant Thai state, signalling its new position by a successful attack on the Khmer capital at Lovek in 1594. In desperation, the Cambodian king appealed to the Spanish at Manila, asking for military assistance in exchange for submission to the Spanish Crown. With the failure of this effort there was nothing to stop continued Thai incursions and the eventual enforced submission of Cambodia to Ayutthaya's control.'§REF§(Andaya 2008, p. 423)§REF§ 'The very last Sanskrit inscription in ancient Cambodia dates to AD 1327, and describes the accession of a king named Jayavarmadiparameshvara. With this event, the Classic period of Khmer civilisation effectively some to a close. There is here called the 'Post-Classic', and by others the post-Angkorian or Middle Period of Cambodian history and culture, extends from that date until the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1863.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 195)§REF§ 'Even worse for Cambodia, in 1594 Lovek fell to the Thai army after the king and his son had fled to Laos. The Thai capture of Lovek is commemorated in two Khmer legends.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 210)§REF§ 'Cambodian history is normally divided into the pre-Angkor (third century to 802 CE), Angkor (802-1432), and post-Angkor periods. The pre-Angkor period is mainly known from seventh-century in- scriptions; Angkor epigraphy begins in the late ninth century. Thus there is a crucial gap in our sources during the critical transitional phase.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p.80)§REF§ 'But in the face of attacks from both Ayutthaya and the Cham, Suryavarman decided to retreat from the old site of Angkor and to move the capital to the area of Phnom Penh. After the fall of Cambodia, missions continued to arrive in China, in 1435, 1436, 1452, and 1499, indicating that the kingdom was still sufficiently integrated to be able to conduct foreign relations. The Angkor period, however, had come to an end.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 84)§REF§ 'First and most dramatic, Angkor’s empire fell apart. During the second quarter of the 13th century Angkorian forces were withdrawn from Champa. By mid-century most of the peninsula, areas west of the Chaophraya river, and northern Thailand had broken away, to be followed shortly by Lopburi and other states in the Chaophraya plain. By 1297 Angkor was defending against Tai attacks from the west. After new Tai pressure forced what some his- torians claim was a temporary withdrawal from Angkor during the mid- to late 14th century (various dates between 1350 and 1389 have been proposed), Khmer rulers may have abandoned the great capital in the 1430s or 1440s in favor of Phnom Penh in the southeast. It is equally plausible that Angkor was never actually abandoned, but that a more powerful royal lineage established itself at Phnom Penh in ri- valry with the old Angkorian family.78 In either case, the 14th century enfeebled central power. Thus Angkor’s disintegration began some- what earlier but overlapped substantially with that of the Upper Burma state, whose problems began in the 1280s, which suffered a major military-political crisis in the 1360s, and which also limped along into the 15th century.'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, pp. 236-237)§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 550, "polity_year_to": 825, "comment": null, "description": " 'Chenla is a name derived from Chinese historical records often used to describe an essentially protohistoric period dated between AD 550 and 800 that followed seamlessly from late prehistory.'§REF§(Higham 2014, 823)§REF§<br>This period begins in 611 CE, approximately the year that the reign of Is(h)anvarman I, who eventually absorbed the Funanese polity into Chenla, began.<br>This period ends in 803 CE, approximately the year that the Chenla period ended with the establishment of early Angkor in 802 CE, as attested in an inscription (the Sdok Kak Thom), which notes that the king (Jayavarman II) conducted a ceremony to free Cambodia from Java by declaring himself the universal monarch (chakravarti).<br>'In the 6th century Southeast Asian shipping to China linking China, Southeast Asia, and India began to shift from coastal sailing along the shores of Vietnam, Cambodia, and the peninsula, to a direct route across the South China Sea from Indonesia to southern China and northern Vietnam. Funan, the coastal polity dependent on maritime trade, apparently collapsed and was replaced in Cambodia by an entity known to the Chinese as 'Chenla', a state, or group of states, or pon-led communities based on the control of land and people, and extracting wealth from agriculture, and possibly inter-community trade, with little involvement in maritime activities.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, 20)§REF§ 'The term Chenla, a Chinese name, was used from the seventh century C.E. to refer to the territory of modern Cambodia and northeast Thailand. Modern historians have also applied the term to the period of Cambodian history from the seventh to early ninth centuries C.E.'§REF§(Southworth 2004, 324)§REF§ 'The first extends approximately from the first to the third centuries AD and provides firm evidence of trade within the region and also with India and beyond, since a gold medallion depicting the Roman emperor Antonius Pius and dated 152 AD was among the items unearthed. At this level there was no sign of Hinduism or Buddhism. [...] The second phase, from the fourth to the seventh centuries, is still categorised as \"Funan\" and bears witness to the adoption of the Indian religions, while the third, which can the called the Zhenla period, begins in the seventh century.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p 52-53)§REF§ 'The division of CHENLA weakened the KHMERS, and their power dissipated in the ninth century when rivals from island Southeast Asia began to encroach on the East- West trade.'§REF§(Ooi 2004, 11)§REF§ 'As the Chinese perceived the situation, Funan in the seventh century was conquered by Zhenla, located in the hinterland. The History of the Sui says Zhenla was originally Funan’s vassal, located southwest of Linyi.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p 426-427)§REF§ 'The Chenla states that rose and fell between 550 and 800 were essentially agrarian, and their economy revolved around the temple.'§REF§(Higham 2004, 76)§REF§ 'During the eighth century, the number of inscrip- tions fell markedly, and the historic record became thin. This does not necessarily imply cultural decline. On the contrary, it was during this period that such large sites as BANTEAY CHOEU near ANGKOR and BANTEAY PREI NOKOR were occupied.'§REF§(Higham 2004, 77)§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 225, "polity_year_to": 540, "comment": null, "description": " Chinese records dating from the 3rd century C.E., beginning with the Sānguó zhì (Records of the Three Kingdoms) completed in AD 289 by Chén Shòu (233-297), record the arrival of two Funanese embassies at the court of Lǚ Dài, governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wú: the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 AD, the second in the year 243.§REF§(Pelliot 1903, p. 303)§REF§ The last Funan king was historically attested in 539 CE. 'According to the Chinese accounts, the last king of Funan was called Rudravarman and he was chiefly distinguished in their eyes because he offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the Emperor at Beijing in 539 AD. After this, the historical record becomes somewhat blurred. For many years, it was believed that Funan declined or disappeared because it was threatened by the rise of another, more powerful state called Chenla or Zhenla to the north.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 13)§REF§ Note: 'Chenla' is the old spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is 'Zhenla'. §REF§(Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§ 'Late in sixth century, 'Fu-nan' disappears from the Chinese record, and its place is taken by the Khmer city-states further north where minor rajas competed for hegemony.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.78)§REF§ 'In the 6th century Southeast Asian shipping to China linking China, Southeast Asia, and India began to shift from coastal sailing along the shores of Vietnam, Cambodia, and the peninsula, to a direct route across the South China Sea from Indonesia to southern China and northern Vietnam. Funan, the coastal polity dependent on maritime trade, apparently collapsed and was replaced in Cambodia by an entity known to the Chinese as 'Chenla', a state, or group of states, or pon-led communities based on the control of land and people, and extracting wealth from agriculture, and possibly inter-community trade, with little involvement in maritime activities.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 20)§REF§ 'In the lower reaches of the Mekong River in Vietnam, between the delta area and the Gulf of Thailand (Siam), lies OC ÈO, an archaeological site generally believed to be FUNAN, a kingdom that flourished in the third through seventh centuries C.E., hitherto known only through written source materials.'§REF§(Ooi 2004, p. 6)§REF§ 'The CHINESE TRIBUTE SYSTEM was imposed on FU-NAN from the fourth century until its demise in the latter half of the sixth century.'§REF§(Ooi 2004, p. 11)§REF§ 'Following the decline of Funan sea power by about the sixth century, the Khmers turned inland, to the country’s agricultural regions.'(§REF§(Ooi 2004, p. 149§REF§ 'It is clear, however, that in the third century the great expansion of Funan towards the Malay peninsula during which it subdued, or rather relegated to vassal status, a number of small states, gave way in the succeeding centuries to a reduction in the extent of its territory, ending around the fourth or fifth centuries in an area restricted to the southern parts of today's Cambodia and Vietnam.' [...] Thus Funan at the beginning of the sixth century would appear to have shrunk to what must have been its original core, the Mekong delta areas of today's Cambodia and Vietnam.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 50)§REF§ 'In 550 CE Chitrasena, borther of king Bhavarma, royal descendant of Hun Tian [Skt. Kaundinya] invaded Te Mu from the northern mountains bringing about the subsequent decline of the Fu Nan kingdom and the beginning of the Zhenla, at about 550-630 CE.'§REF§(Khai 2003, p. 43)§REF§ 'It dates to about 100-550 C.E. and was located on the delta of the Mekong and Bassac Rivers in modern Cambodia and Vietnam.'§REF§(Higham 2004, p. 113)§REF§ '205-225 CE: Rule of Fan Shih-Man, who draws other principalities into the Funan orbit and is considered by some as the kingdom’s greatest ruler.'§REF§(West 2009, p. 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 540, "polity_year_to": 640, "comment": null, "description": " This period, from approximately 540 to 640 CE, marks a period of decline and dissolution due in large part to significant changes in international trade networks and the nautical technologies on which these trade networks relied. The last Funan king was attested to in 539 CE. 640 CE marks the end of the Funan polity, having lost considerable ground to the Zhenla in the preceding fifty years, as attested by Chinese sources, which attest to missions that were sent to China by a number of polities conquered by Zhenla around 650 CE. 'There is considerable evidence for conflict and the imposition of hegemony by one group over another in Southeast Asia from earliest times. From the Angkor period (after 800CE), there is ample evidence of conflict, both from inscriptions (Finot 1925; Jacques 1986) and bas-reliefs (Chetwin 2001; Clark 2007; Coedés 1932; Jacq-Hergoualc'h 2007; Le Bonheur & Poncar 1993). Accounts from Chinese histories provide indirect evidence for conflict in the earlier period too. One indicates that settlements in the polity of Funan, located in the Mekong Delta, were fortified. Another reveals that missions were sent to China by a number of polities conquered by Chenla, the power that superseded Funan in Cambodia, after CE 650-6 (Tuan-Lin 1876).'§REF§(Dommet et al 2011, p.441)§REF§ Note: Chenla is the older formulation of the name, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla. §REF§(Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§ 'According to the Chinese accounts, the last king of Funan was called Rudravarman and he was chiefly distinguished in their eyes because he offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the Emperor at Beijing in 539 AD. After this, the historical record becomes somewhat blurred. For many years, it was believed that Funan declined or disappeared because it was threatened by the rise of another, more powerful state called Chenla or Zhenla to the north.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 13)§REF§ 'Late in sixth century, 'Fu-nan' disappears from the Chinese record, and its place is taken by the Khmer city-states further north where minor rajas competed for hegemony.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.78)§REF§ 'In the 6th century Southeast Asian shipping to China linking China, Southeast Asia, and India began to shift from coastal sailing along the shores of Vietnam, Cambodia, and the peninsula, to a direct route across the South China Sea from Indonesia to southern China and northern Vietnam. Funan, the coastal polity dependent on maritime trade, apparently collapsed and was replaced in Cambodia by an entity known to the Chinese as 'Chenla', a state, or group of states, or pon-led communities based on the control of land and people, and extracting wealth from agriculture, and possibly inter-community trade, with little involvement in maritime activities.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 20)§REF§ 'In the lower reaches of the Mekong River in Vietnam, between the delta area and the Gulf of Thailand (Siam), lies OC ÈO, an archaeological site generally believed to be FUNAN, a kingdom that flourished in the third through seventh centuries C.E., hitherto known only through written source materials.'§REF§(Ooi 2004, p. 6)§REF§ 'The CHINESE TRIBUTE SYSTEM was imposed on FU-NAN from the fourth century until its demise in the latter half of the sixth century.'§REF§(Ooi 2004, p. 11)§REF§ 'Following the decline of Funan sea power by about the sixth century, the Khmers turned inland, to the country’s agricultural regions.'(§REF§(Ooi 2004, p. 149§REF§ 'It is clear, however, that in the third century the great expansion of Funan towards the Malay peninsula during which it subdued, or rather relegated to vassal status, a number of small states, gave way in the succeeding centuries to a reduction in the extent of its territory, ending around the fourth or fifth centuries in an area restricted to the southern parts of today's Cambodia and Vietnam.' [...] Thus Funan at the beginning of the sixth century would appear to have shrunk to what must have been its original core, the Mekong delta areas of today's Cambodia and Vietnam.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 50)§REF§ 'In 550 CE Chitrasena, borther of king Bhavarma, royal descendant of Hun Tian [Skt. Kaundinya] invaded Te Mu from the northern mountains bringing about the subsequent decline of the Fu Nan kingdom and the beginning of the Zhenla, at about 550-630 CE.'§REF§(Khai 2003, p. 43)§REF§ 'Whatever the cause, the fact remains that the Oc Eo culture and references to the kingdom of Funan both came to an end in the sev- enth century. Oc Eo was peopled by a highly advanced society for its time, but it dwindled into insignificance and was not replaced by any comparable political or commercial entity. Instead, a new society co- alesced in the middle Mekong Valley. Its connection with Funan is unclear.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 126)§REF§ 'The changes came as improvements in navigation made it possible for ships sailing from distant ports to bypass Funan and deal directly with the Chinese. Chinese records make it clear that by the fifth century Holotan in western Java and Koying in the Sunda Strait were trading directly with China, rather than through Funan’s intermediary ports (Wolters: 1979b). Funan and the east coast Malay Peninsula were thus being cut out of the India-to-China trade. The Isthmus of Kra portage had fallen into disuse, as ships from Sri Lanka and India were now sailing via the Straits of Melaka directly to these ports on the western edge of the Java Sea, putting them closer to the source of the Indonesian archipelago spices that were beginning to find an international market (Wolters: 1967; Miksic: 2003a, 28-33). The more direct sea passage from the Sunda Strait region north to China incorporated a stopover on the central (Linyi) and northern Vietnam coastlines rather than on the Funan coast of southern Vietnam. Whether this refocusing of the international trade was directly responsible for Funan’s dynastic crisis is not certain, but it had profound consequences for Funan’s future. The shifting of the commercial shipping route to the Straits of Melaka passage and the subsequent omission of stops at Funan’s ports in the Gulf of Thailand and the Mekong Delta region of the lower Viet- nam coastline denied the Funan rulers important revenues. Deprived of this major source of royal income, the ruler as well as his followers, including subordinate chiefs and their supporters, found their prosperity diminished. Such a decline in royal income available for redistribution to their followers could well have touched off a dynastic crisis as rival claimants, promoting their ability to restore Funan’s prosperity, attempted to gather enough supporters to seize the throne. As they did so, they competed for a shrinking realm. By the end of the fifth century, Funan was losing ground to its northern neighbor Linyi (the future Champa), the sailors who had provided Funan’s navy had turned to piracy, and the Malay entrepoˆts had begun sending their own embassies to China. In this same period, as noted earlier, Funan’s canal and irrigation networks were expanding rapidly in the Mekong Delta, as part of its transition to a more intensive agricultural economy. However, Funan’s decline continued, as midway through the sixth century its Khmer vassals to the north broke away, and by the seventh century Funan was no more. Its irrigation networks in the Mekong Delta were reclaimed by jungle as the farmers moved northwest to the new Khmer-ruled centers in the central Cambodia Tonle Sap area.'§REF§(Hall 2010, pp. 60-61)§REF§ 'As Chinese trade began to bypass the Mekong Delta and go directly to Sumatra, the state of FUNAN declined, and Srivijaya expanded.'§REF§(Higham 2004, p. 332)§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 35, "name": "kh_cambodia_ba", "long_name": "Bronze Age Cambodia", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1200, "polity_year_to": -501, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 36, "name": "kh_cambodia_ia", "long_name": "Iron Age Cambodia", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 224 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -500, "polity_year_to": 224, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1800, "polity_year_to": -1200, "comment": null, "description": "\"The tin mines of the Zeravshan River valley were found and investigated by N. Boroffka and H. Parzinger between 1997 and 1999. Two tin mines with Bronze Age workings were excavated. The largest was in the desert on the lower Zeravshan at Karnab (Uzbekistan), about 170km west of Sarazm, exploiting cassiterite ores with a moderate tin content ... The potter and radiocarbon dates show that the Karnab mine was worked by people from the northern steppes, connected with the Andronovo horizon ... Dates ranged from 1900 to 1300 BCE ...\"§REF§(Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"The 'Andronovo culture' is a convenient way of referring to the various communities sharing a broadly similar culture that occupied the Kazakh steppe in the period 1800-1200 BC.\"§REF§(Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns.\"§REF§(Lee 2015, 60) Lee, Wayne E. 2015. Waging War: Conflict, Culture, and Innovation in World History. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1200, "polity_year_to": -332, "comment": null, "description": " The beginning date is approximate, during the time when the earlier Canaanite culture entered its final decline, the Egyptian and Hittite empires both suddenly lost much of their power, and the Phoenician culture differentiated itself. The end date reflects the conquest of Tyre by Alexander the Great. (Arguments could be made for earlier dates as well; in approximately 850 BCE, the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II conquered the Phoenician cities and turned them into vassals.§REF§Healey (1991:10).§REF§ This was not the first time that the Assyrians had conquered Phoenicia—Tiglath-Pileser I campaigned against them c. 1100 BCE§REF§Bryce (2009:42)§REF§—but in the earlier instance, Assyrian control was short-lived and ended around 1050 BCE, and the Phoenicians regained their independence. After the conquest by Ashurnasirpal II, the Phoenician cities in the Levantine coast spent most of their cultural existence as vassals of one empire or another. However, the Assyrians and later the Persians gave the Phoenician cities a wide degree of autonomy because of their seafaring skill; they were more useful as autonomous traders who could then be a rich source of tribute.§REF§Kaufman (2014: 3-4).§REF§)" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1554, "polity_year_to": 1659, "comment": null, "description": " 1554 is the year that the whole of Morocco was united under the rule of the Saadi--previously, it had been divided between the latter and the Wattasid-Marinid dynasty--while 1659 is the year the last Saadi ruler was assassinated§REF§M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232§REF§." }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1712, "polity_year_to": 1861, "comment": null, "description": " The polity was founded by Biton Coulibaly in 1712§REF§S.C. Brett-Smith, Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art (2002), in <i>american Anthropologist 104(3): 939-952</i>§REF§, and was engulfed by the Toucouleur kingdom in 1861§REF§(Oloruntimehin 1972, 141) B. Olofunmilayo Oloruntimehin. 1972. The Segu Tukulor Empire. London: Longman.§REF§." }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -250, "polity_year_to": 49, "comment": null, "description": "1977 excavation habitation 250 BCE to at least 12th century CE \"Gradual abandonment of the site was probably in progress soon thereafter\" 1400 CE reasonable estimate for abandonment, but could be as early as 1200 CE. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 15)§REF§<br>Earliest phase 250 BCE - 50 CE. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 15)§REF§<br>\"It appears that permanent settlement first became possible in the upper Inland Niger Delta in about the third century B.C.E. Prior to that time, the flood regime of the Niger was apparently much more active, meaning that the annual floodwaters rose higher and perhaps stayed longer than they do today, such that there was no high land that regularly escaped inundation. Under these wetter circumstances, diseases carried by insects, especially tsetse fly, would have discouraged occupation. Between 200 B.C.E. and 100 C.E., the Sahel experienced significant dry episodes, that were part of the general drying trend seriously underway since 1000 B.C.E. Prior to that time, significant numbers of herders and farmers lived in what is today the southern Sahara desert, where they raised cattle, sheep and goat, grew millet, hunted, and fished in an environment of shallow lakes and grassy plains.\" §REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 50, "polity_year_to": 399, "comment": null, "description": "Phase II: 50-400 CE§REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 400, "polity_year_to": 899, "comment": null, "description": "Phase III: 400-900 CE.§REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§<br>Jenne-Jeno: town certainly existed 400-900 CE and it \"developed greatly during the following period, from 900 to 1400.\" Important centre for regional trade, not linked to Saharan trade. §REF§(Devisse 1988, 417)§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 900, "polity_year_to": 1300, "comment": null, "description": "Decline of Jenne-Jeno accompanied the rise of the new city of Djenne (the modern town, established \"much earlier\" than 1100 CE§REF§McIntosh, Roderick. McIntosh, Susan. \"Results of recent excavations at Jenné-jeno and Djenné, Mali\" in Sanogo, K. Togola, T. 2004. Proceedings of the Eleventh Congress of the Pan-African Association for Prehistory and Related Fields. Institut des Sciences Humaines. Bamako. pp. 469-481.§REF§). We could hypothesize that Djenne started out as a political, military and ritual center which controlled the economic center at Jenne-Jeno, until Djenne took that over itself. However, this is my speculation. R and S McIntosh says: \"Analyses conducted thus far have not yielded any information on the possible reasons for the new settlement at Djenné.\"§REF§McIntosh, Roderick. McIntosh, Susan. \"Results of recent excavations at Jenné-jeno and Djenné, Mali\" in Sanogo, K. Togola, T. 2004. Proceedings of the Eleventh Congress of the Pan-African Association for Prehistory and Related Fields. Institut des Sciences Humaines. Bamako. pp. 469-481.§REF§<br>1977 excavation habitation 250 BCE to at least 12th century CE \"Gradual abandonment of the site was probably in progress soon thereafter\" 1400 CE reasonable estimate for abandonment, but could be as early as 1200 CE. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 15)§REF§<br>\"all we can state with confidence is that Jenne-jeno must have been abandoned by at least A.D. 1468, at which time Sonni Ali garrisoned his troops there.\"§REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 9)§REF§<br>Hambarketolo was also abandoned same time as Jenne-jeno. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§<br>Phase IV §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)§REF§ dates not stated. inferred: 900-[1200-1400] CE<br>hypothesize \"Muslim market center of Jenne as the primary cause of Jenne-jeno's abandonment.\" §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 17)§REF§<br>Jenne-Jeno: town certainly existed 400-900 CE and it \"developed greatly during the following period, from 900 to 1400.\" Important centre for regional trade, not linked to Saharan trade. §REF§(Devisse 1988, 417)§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1230, "polity_year_to": 1410, "comment": null, "description": "\"Most modern syntheses place the floruit of Mali between 1235 and 1450.\"§REF§(MacDonald et al 2011) MacDonald, K. Camara, S. Canos, S. Gestrich, N. Keita, D. 2011. Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital? Archaeology International. 13. pp.52-64. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315</a>§REF§<br>Core region of the Mali Empire was the region of Kangaba (south of the Ghana empire region) whose traders \"enjoyed positions of privilege\" within the preceding Ghana empire.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 38) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"From the early thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth centuries\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§<br>\"In the first half of the 13th century, the Malinke chiefdoms of the Upper Niger began to join together into a new state\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 39)§REF§<br>\"The Keita dynasty ruled, with some interruptions, from 1230 to 1390.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§<br>\"By the end of the fourteenth century the Malian Empire was in decline.\" \"As the the trade routes changed\" in favour of Timbuktu and Jenne \"local chieftains became independent, and this reduced Mali once again to a petty chieftaincy.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§<br>Victory of Sundiata in 1235 CE over Soso/Soussou. §REF§(Niane 1984, 118, 130)§REF§ The unification of provinces of Do, Kiri and Banko made the Keita chief supreme authority. §REF§(Niane 1984, 160)§REF§ Timbuktu captured by Tuareg in 1433 CE. §REF§(Ly-tall 1984, 174)§REF§ Fulanis - Futa Kingdom - conquered western Mali possessions early 16th Century CE. Mansa Mahmüd IV defeated at Jenne, 1599 CE. §REF§(Ly-tall 1984, 181-84)§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1650, "polity_year_to": 1712, "comment": null, "description": " According to oral traditions, Kaladian Coulibaly ruled over the region from about 1650§REF§K.C. MacDonald, <i>A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois</i>: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins, in F.G. Richard and K.C. MacDonald, Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities (2014), pp. 119-144§REF§. In 1712, his alleged great-grandson, Mamari Coulibaly, rose to power after the dynasty had dwindled into poverty, and initiated the second and better known phase of the Segu kingdom's history, known on this database as the \"Bamana Empire\"§REF§M. Izard and J. Ki-Zerbo, From the Niger to the Volta, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 327-367§REF§." }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1493, "polity_year_to": 1591, "comment": null, "description": "Origins of Songhay people at Gao c7th century when they displaced the Sorko, and their capital was at Kukya. Rulers converted to Islam - perhaps influenced by Berber traders - beginning 11th century, possibly 1010 CE, and then capital transferred to Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 50) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§ Gao was a centre for trans-Saharan trade even before 1000 CE and had been a state well before the establishment of the Songhai empire.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 50) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"In methods of government, it seems that the new Songhay leadership mainly took over the old Malian system, and this tendency became clearer when, soon after the death of Sonni Ali, power was seized by one of his generals, the Askiya Muhammad Ture, whose name would strongly suggest that he was not of Songhay but of Soninke (i.e., northern Mande) origin, and that his coup d'etat represented a return to Mande leadership in what was predominantly a Mande-speaking empire.\" §REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 68)§REF§<br>Conquered by Morocco 1591 CE. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 17)§REF§<br>The Songhay Empire collapsed when it was invaded by the army of the Sultan of Morocco §REF§M. Abitbol, The end of the Songhay empire, in in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 300-326§REF§." }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 583, "polity_year_to": 630, "comment": null, "description": " \"By 627 internal rebellions and a Tang invasion resulted in the dissolution of the first Turkic polity.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 226)§REF§c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285)§REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 907, "polity_year_to": 1125, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1206, "polity_year_to": 1270, "comment": null, "description": "1206 CE. Date at which Genghis Khan (originally known as Temujin or Temuchin) became the leader over all the Turkic tribes of Central Asia at a meeting next to the Onon river. This began the expansion of Mongol rule. §REF§Kennedy, Hugh, ‘Mongols or Moghuls’, The Oxford companion to military history, ed. by Richard Holmes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).§REF§<br>1270 CE. Series of Civil Wars between dependents of Temuchin for control of different parts of Mongol Empire. After a series of military campaigns, Kublai Khan took control of China and established a new Mongolian dynasty based in the territory of the former Jin empire. This polity, ruling from China, was to be known as the Yuan Dynasty, and lasted from 1271 CE until its eventual demise in 1368.§REF§(Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File.§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1000, "polity_year_to": 1206, "comment": null, "description": " By the starting date of 1000 CE we already have mentions of ethnic terms designating various tribal groups in Mongolia: Tatars, Naimans, Kereids, Mongols (Menggu in Chinese sources). These terms appeared at the very end of the first millennium CE. Citation: Taskin 1984, Rachewiltz 2004). The ending date is when Chinggiz formed the empire." }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1368, "polity_year_to": 1690, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 300, "polity_year_to": 555, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 439, "name": "mn_shiwei", "long_name": "Shiwei", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 600, "polity_year_to": 1000, "comment": null, "description": " MnShiwe was a period of \"Dark Age\" when many tribal confederations were on the steppe, such as Zubu, Shiwei or early Mongols.§REF§(Nikolay Kradin 2016, Personal Communication)§REF§" } ] }